declaring belief in Islam. The expanded statement is "ʾašhadu ʾal-lā ʾilāha ʾillā-llāhu wa ʾašhadu ʾanna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh" (أشهد أن لا إله إلا الله...

for the believer. He admits that he felt confused by it (lam azdad bihā illā þpiratan) and he found it to consist of idle talk (khuza"balār)... Shawkānī...

Muslim, Muqaddima, Bāb anna al-isnād min ad-dīn wa-ʾanna r-riwāya lā takūn illā ʿan aṯ-ṯiqāt G.H.A. Juynboll: Muslim tradition. Studies in chronology, provenance...

is extended to all intoxicating substances, on the basis of the "cause" (ʿilla) shared by these situations, which in this case is identified to be intoxication...

active life of Muhammad instead of a metaphorical union with God.(Ira Lapidus, A History of Islamic Societies, p. 210) Touma, p.165. Chittick 2000, p...