This refraction is due to the velocity of light through air decreasing (the refractive index increases) with increased density. Atmospheric refraction near...

calculation, neglecting atmospheric refraction and the non-zero angle subtended by the solar disc. Neglecting the effects of refraction and the Sun's non-zero...

is the index of refraction of air at the observer's height, and μ0 is the index of refraction of air at Earth's surface. The refraction must be found by...

is refracted in the same direction as the curvature of Earth's surface. The refractive index of air depends on temperature, giving rise to refraction effects...

lower layers of Earth’s atmosphere, where the waves are bent by atmospheric refraction. In over-the-horizon radar, ducting causes part of the radiated...

Applications" (PDF). Retrieved 28 February 2012. "Atmospheric Refraction Approximation". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 28 February 2012...

limb of the Sun disappears below the horizon. Near the horizon, atmospheric refraction causes sunlight rays to be distorted to such an extent that geometrically...

after adjusting Rowbotham's method to allow for the effects of atmospheric refraction, Alfred Russel Wallace found a curvature consistent with a spherical...

medium. Refraction of light is the most commonly observed phenomenon, but other waves such as sound waves and water waves also experience refraction. How...

signals do not propagate in straight lines: Because of the refractive effects of atmospheric layers, the propagation paths are somewhat curved. Thus, the...

when refraction is minimum. Atmospheric diffraction is a visual effect caused when sunlight is bent by particles suspended in the air. Atmospheric optical...

they are not exactly equal because of the angular size of the Sun, atmospheric refraction, and the rapidly changing duration of the length of day that occurs...

ESL Inc., Palo Alto, California, IR-26 22 May 1967 Atmospheric refraction Noise barrier Explanation and image gallery - Atmospheric Optics by Les Cowley...

While mirages are the best known atmospheric refraction phenomena, looming and similar refraction phenomena do not produce mirages. Mirages show an extra...

shortens night by about 3 minutes in temperate zones. Atmospheric refraction is a larger factor. Refraction bends sunlight over the horizon. On Earth, the Sun...

that are visible, but near the horizon, are visibly affected by atmospheric refraction because of the low temperatures. The appearance of these stars near...

atmosphere. Most scintillation effects are caused by anomalous atmospheric refraction caused by small-scale fluctuations in air density usually related...

described by Snell's law of refraction, n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2, where θ1 and θ2 are the angle of incidence and angle of refraction, respectively, of a ray...

from a fraction of a second to a couple of seconds. While simple atmospheric refraction or lensing explains the background gradient of red-amber twilight...

without considering the effect of atmospheric refraction. The equation above neglects the influence of atmospheric refraction (which lifts the solar disc —...

commonly observed are sunset and sunrise mirages. Atmospheric refraction Looming and similar refraction phenomena The uppermost inset frame shows an inferior...

(reflecting the mountains and clouds). In 1979, W. H. Lehn showed that atmospheric refraction could distort the shape and size of objects and animals, and later...

simple refraction might distort and bend the images in any way. The distortion in both images displayed in this section was caused by refraction, but while...

A rainbow is an optical phenomenon caused by refraction, internal reflection and dispersion of light in water droplets resulting in a continuous spectrum...

and atmospheric phenomena such as winds, thunder, lightning, snow, floods, valleys, rivers, lakes. In 1021, Alhazen showed that atmospheric refraction is...

extends up to half of the year, namely, close to the poles. Instead, atmospheric refraction and the Sun's light reaching the planet as an extended object rather...

both to refraction and to changes in apparent distance. In the Book of Optics (1011–1022 A.D.), Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) repeated refraction as an explanation...

June and December solstices, respectively. However, because of atmospheric refraction and mirages, and also because the sun appears as a disk and not...

hard to detect the changes in sunrise/sunset azimuth due to the atmospheric refraction changes. Those accuracy issues render it impossible to determine...

backsight distances approximately equal so that the refraction and curvature effects cancel out. Refraction is generally the greatest source of error in leveling...