Akure Forest Reserve

Akure Forest Reserve is a protected area in southwest Nigeria, covering 66 km² (25 sq mi).^[1] The Akure Forest Reserve, established in 1948 and spanning approximately 32 hectares. It was created with the primary aim of safeguarding the genetic diversity of the forest ecosystem.^[2] About 11.73% (8.2 km²) is estimated to be cleared for cocoa farming and other food crops.^[3] Aponmu and Owena Yoruba speaking communities owned the forest, though, there are also minor settlements surrounding the forest. They include Ipogun, Kajola/ Aponmu, Kajola, Ago Petesi, Akika Camp, Owena Town, Ibutitan/Ilaro Camp, Elemo Igbara Oke Camp and Owena Water new Dam.^[4]

Within the forest reserve, an area of about 600 hectares of forest was set aside as the Strict Nature Reserve (SNR), often referred to as the "Queen’s plot". This site is among Nigeria's Strict Nature Forest Reserves. SNRs, along with wilderness zones, are designated areas primarily intended for research and safeguarding extensive, untouched wilderness regions. Their main goal is to conserve biodiversity and serve as essential reference for scientific research and environmental monitoring.^{[citation needed]}

In recent decades, there has been a large deforestation in this area, which has a huge impact on the environment.^[5] Akure Forest reserve is a forested area set aside for preservation or controlled use and located at Ile Oluji/Okeigbo, Ondo State, Nigeria, with a Latitude of 7° 17′ 39″ N and Longitude of 5° 2′ 3″ E.^[6]

The Akure Forest Reserve is situated in the Ondo State, Nigeria, a region in Akure South Local Government Area.  It falls within longitudes 5o9′ and 5o11′ east of the Greenwich Meridian and latitudes 7o16′ and 7o18′ north of the equator.^[7] It was established as a reserve in 1936. It covers a land area of about 69.93km2. Politically, it is located in Ondo State in southwest Nigeria and shares a border with Osun State in the northeast. The Akure forest reserve share border with the five LGAs, in Ondo State namely : Ile Oluji, Oke-Igbo, Ifedore, Akure South, Idanre and Ondo East.^[7]

Akure has a tropical humid climate with a minimum and maximum daily temperature range of 27 °C - 38 °C respectively, in the wet season and 23 °C - 39 °C respectively in the dry season.^[8] However, according to Adejoba et al.,^[9] the average daily temperature ranges between 21 °C and 29 °C for nearly the entire year. The wet season in this area lasts about 9.6 months with a monthly rainfall of about 0.5inches, with 9.0 inches in September as the wettest month^[10] The average annual rainfall varies from 2000mm in the south to 1500mm in the north. The yearly relative humidity in the south-west range from 80-85%.^[11] The wet season begins in April and ends in October, with the heaviest rainfall records occurring in July and August, while the dry season lasts from November to March.^[12]

The history of the Akure Forest Reserve has been marked by notable milestones and transformations in its management and ecological dynamics:

1. Post-Independence Conservation: Since Nigeria gained independence in 1960, the Akure Forest Reserve has stood as a beacon of biodiversity. Post-independence, the Nigerian government implemented protective measures like the National Forestry Policy in 1975, which directly impacted reserves like Akure.^[13] Collaborative initiatives, such as the joint efforts between local communities and the Ondo State Ministry of Natural Resources in the late 1980s, aimed to promote sustainable forestry and curb illegal activities.^[14] Notably, biodiversity surveys, like the one conducted by the Wildlife Conservation Society in 1992, provided critical insights into the reserve's unique species, helping draft conservation action plans.^[15] Despite these strides, the reserve faced challenges; for instance, the encroachment of farmlands, exemplified by the expansion of agricultural plots near the Akure Reserve's southern boundary in the early 2000s. Additionally, climate change effects, like the altered rainfall patterns observed post-2005, threatened the forest's ecosystem. Nevertheless, partnerships between the Ondo State government and international conservation bodies, such as the collaboration with the World Wildlife Fund in 2010, showcased a united front in tackling these challenges, underscoring the importance of preserving Akure's ecological heritage for posterity.^[16]
2. Land Use Changes: Before being designated as a reserve in 1936, the forest encompassed an area of 69.93 km², equivalent to 7139.8 hectares. By 1986, the pristine forest, characterized by its dense, dark-green canopy, spanned 4520.7 hectares, making up 63.3% of the entire forested region. Other land uses included bare ground at 818.1 hectares (11.5%), farmland at 1209.9 hectares (16.9%), secondary regrowth forest spanning 590.9 hectares (8.3%), and water bodies occupying 207.900 hectares (2.9%).^[4] In 2002, the extent of bare ground expanded dramatically to cover 2573 hectares (36%), a significant increase from the 11.5% observed in 1986. Farmland also expanded to 1575.3 hectares (22.1%), secondary regrowth forest increased slightly to 590.993 hectares (9.5%), while the undisturbed forest area dwindled to 2311.3 hectares (32.4%).^[4] By 2017, the area covered by bare ground slightly reduced to 2274.4 hectares (31.9%), indicating a 4.1% decline over the five-year period. Farmland remained at 1249.470 hectares (17.5%), the undisturbed forest further shrank to 2289.900 hectares (32.1%), secondary regrowth covered 1118.070 hectares (15.6%), and water bodies remained consistent at 207.900 hectares (2.9%). The visibility of water bodies in the 2017 imagery is attributed to human activities that have altered the landscape.^[4] Analyzing the land use patterns from 1986, 2002, and 2017 highlights the significant alterations driven by human interventions. Specifically, areas around Obada, Owena, and Ibutitan/Ilaro camp exhibited noticeable changes, likely due to human encroachment and direct access. While the 1986 imagery showcased a denser vegetation cover, subsequent years revealed a decline. Notably, the 1986 and 2002 data did not explicitly show water bodies; however, satellite imagery hinted at the presence of riparian forests. The construction of a dam, achieved through the dredging of the Owena river, led to the emergence of the water bodies evident in the 2017 imagery.^[4]
3. Biodiversity Research and Discoveries: The forest has been a focal point for biodiversity research, revealing numerous insights through collaborative scientific endeavors. In 1995, a biodiversity survey conducted by the Nigerian Conservation Foundation (NCF) unearthed several previously undiscovered endemic plant species, emphasizing the reserve's ecological significance.^[17] By 2008, joint research efforts involving the University of Ibadan and the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) identified rare mammalian species, some believed to be locally extinct, reiterating the reserve's conservation importance.^{[citation needed]} Additionally, in 2014, a collaborative study between the NCF and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) shed light on intricate avian migration patterns, further highlighting the reserve's role as a critical hub for avifauna.^[18] These collective research initiatives underscore the Akure Forest Reserve's pivotal contribution to biodiversity studies and its essential role in global conservation discourse.^[19]
4. Environmental Challenges: The Akure Forest Reserve in Ondo State, Nigeria, grapples with pressing environmental challenges that have escalated over the decades. For instance, in the early 2000s, the reserve witnessed a surge in encroachments from agricultural activities, notably with the establishment of large-scale farms near its boundaries, leading to evident deforestation and habitat fragmentation.^[20] Concurrently, the impact of climate change became increasingly pronounced; by 2005, altered rainfall patterns began to disrupt the reserve's natural water sources, exacerbating drought conditions and affecting the survival of local flora and fauna.^[11] Additionally, despite regulations, unauthorized logging incidents persisted, with a notable uptick in 2012, further diminishing the forest's timber resources.^[21] These specific events highlight the cumulative and multifaceted environmental threats facing the Akure Forest Reserve, emphasizing the imperative for sustained conservation efforts and adaptive management strategies.^[21]

The southern portion of the terrain is low lying, gently undulating, and has an elevation range of 216 to 504 meters, while the northern portion has hilly rock outcrops that are spaced closely together. Gneiss and crystalline rocks make up the ground beneath. It has a pH range of 6.7 to 7.3 and is sandy-loam in composition.^[22] Furthermore, the Akure Forest Reserve provides invaluable ecosystem services, including carbon sequestration, water regulation, habitat preservation, and cultural significance. It acts as a vital carbon sink, mitigating the impacts of climate change, while also regulating local water cycles and serving as a sanctuary for numerous plant and animal species.^[23]

Akure forest reserve is home to diverse species of plants and animals. It has a high diversity, richness, and abundance of plant species, with Nine hundred and fifty-six (956) unique trees counted in total; It contains 42 different tree species, which were dispersed among 20 different families. The most prevalent families were Sterculiaceae and Apocynaceae demonstrating the abundance of plant species in the area.^[22] Four diurnal primates in two families are present in the forest. Two of these primates were detected through direct sighting. The third and the fourth were discovered through the interview with hunters in the adjoining villages which confirmed that three species of monkeys (Owe = Cercocebus torquatus; Lambe or Obo = Cercopithecus mona, and Oto = Putty nosed monkey) are present in the reserve. Some of the hunters interviewed also affirmed that very few chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) could still be present in the forest because they seldom hear the vocalization of the animal.^[24] Akure forest reserve is also home to diverse number of insect species with about 13,578 insects distributed among 30 families belonging to 15 orders.^[25] In the forest ecosystem, insect diversification is categorized into three distinct land use types. Within the fallow land, a total of 5,182 insects were observed, representing 46 different families and spanning 8 orders. In the cocoa agroforest, 5,884 insects were documented, encompassing 50 families and 10 orders. The unlogged forest, on the other hand, contained 2,490 insects, spanning 10 orders and 56 families. Notably, the most abundant families and orders were Lepidoptera, with 4,000 individuals, and Orthoptera, with 1,260 individuals. These insects primarily act as defoliators within the ecosystem.^[25]

Several researches have shown a tremendous human activities going on around the Akure forest reserve. These activities range from agriculture to lumbering, urbanization, etc. which are negatively affecting the reserve. Lumbering has significantly affected insect population in the forest as it leaves the soil bare and dry displacing them from their natural ecosystem. The worst, is that there is little or no awareness to the rural communities about preservation of the forest. For instance, these scholars^[26] observed that rural communities living around the forest reserve depend heavily on the forest for their livelihood. As a result of this, it has resulted in high level of deforestation. More so, very few members of the rural communities are aware of the program on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation.^[26] Other scholars who have studied on various aspects and extents of deforestation in this forest reserve include; Adetula^[27] who estimated that 11.73% (8.2 km2) of the area had been cleared for cocoa farming and other food crops; Fuwape et al.^[28] documented the Gmelina arborea covered (721.40 m3) and Nauclea diderrichii spp. (265.18 m3), respectively; Oke^[29] worked on the family Sterculiaceae including the species counted for 53% of the total tree canopies in Akure forest reserve. Owusu's (2018)^[30] research, submits that the disappearance of vegetation in the city is raising livability issues with regard to ecosystem function, temperature rise, and air quality. As a result, he advised policymakers to address the three crucial issues of resilience, sustainability, and livability. In the southern section of the relief pattern.   The forest was owned by the Aponmu and Owena Yoruba speaking groups, although it was also surrounded by small towns. These include Elemo Igbara Oke Camp, Ipogun, Kajola/Aponmu, Kajola, Ago Petesi, Akika Camp, Owena Town, Ibutitan/Ilaro Camp, and Kajola/Aponmu.

Ecotourism is a nature-focused form of tourism that strives to alleviate the impact on the natural environment and promote the preservation of natural resources. It entails journeys to natural attractions that not only safeguard the local culture and environment but also support the welfare of the indigenous community. Ecotourism assets encompass both the natural and cultural aspects that draw visitors to an eco-friendly destination, forming the foundation of ecotourism and fostering a sustainable flow of tourists.

In Africa, and Nigeria specifically, there is a notable lack of comprehensive information concerning the diversity of tree species and the dynamics of ecological succession within its natural tropical rainforests. This knowledge gap is primarily attributed to the limited number of studies and investigations addressing these subjects. The rainforest ecosystems in Nigeria represent the most densely populated regions of the country and play a critical role in meeting the nation's timber demands.^[31]

However, these ecosystems have faced immense challenges due to a lengthy history of uncontrolled human activities, including illegal logging, poaching, and the conversion of forested areas for agriculture and development projects, a legacy dating back to pre-colonial times.^[31] This sustained and mounting pressure on these forests has resulted in their gradual disappearance, along with a consequent loss of biodiversity, encompassing both plant and animal life. These developments have brought significant hardship to the indigenous communities that rely on these forests for their livelihoods.^[32]

Deforestation and forest degradation persist at alarming rates, posing a significant threat to global biodiversity.^[33] Since 1990, approximately 420 million hectares of forested land have been converted for various land uses, despite a reduction in the overall deforestation rate over the past three decades. The estimated rate of deforestation between 2015 and 2020 remains notable at 10 million hectares annually, down from 16 million hectares in the 1990s. The global extent of primary forests has also experienced a substantial decline, shrinking by over 80 million hectares since 1990.^[33]

Major drivers of deforestation, identified include indiscriminate forest exploitation, agricultural expansion through forest clearance, encroachment, and population growth. The rich tropical rainforests of Nigeria's southwest and southeast geopolitical zones, celebrated for their diverse plant species, are particularly vulnerable to these threats.^[34]

The critical metric of biodiversity, measured by the heterogeneity in the number and density of individual species, faces peril due to deforestation. While forests, especially in the tropics, serve as crucial reservoirs of biodiversity, the processes of deforestation, fragmentation, and degradation pose severe threats to this ecological richness.

The assessment of biodiversity emerges as a crucial tool in gauging the pace of forest depletion within reserves, offering insights into the ramifications of diverse land use activities. Illicit removal of trees amplifies global warming and exacerbates shortages of wood, impacting both industries and the general standard of living. The call for comprehensive inventory practices becomes imperative to discern the abundance and diversities of forest trees, laying a foundation for effective conservation efforts.^[23]

Economic and social importance of the Akure Forest Reserve in relation to non-timber forest products, tourism and recreation, and its cultural and religious significance:

1. Non-wooden Forest merchandise (NTFPs):

• Range of merchandise: The A woodland reserve is rich in non-wood woodland merchandise, In addition to timber, the encompassing area includes a wide range of valuable resources. Those are medicinal plants, nuts, herbs, mushrooms, honey, and diverse other vegetation and fauna that can be harvested for food, medicinal drugs, and other purposes.^[35]
• Supply of livelihood: NTFPs play a essential prole i the livelihoods of local groups. People living in and around the woodland often rely upon these sources for sustenance, income generation, and traditional medicine.^{[citation needed]}
• Commercial possibilities: some non-wooded area products have a business fee and are traded in neighborhood, national, and even global markets. This has a to the local financial system.^[36]

2. Tourism and exercise:

• Biodiversity and Ecotourism: The Akure Forest Reserve's rich biodiversity and the presence of unique and diverse animal species make it an exceptional platform for ecotourism, which includes nature enthusiasts and researchers who, are interested in the reserve to have a look at, have a look at, and admire the numerous surroundings.^[37][38][39]
• Recreational sports: The forest gives possibilities for recreational sports like hiking, birdwatching, picnicking, and camping. These sports now not handiest provide leisure site visitors but also make a contribution to local economies via the guide and lodge services.^[40]

3. Cultural and non-secular significance:

• Cultural Practices and Traditions: The Akure Forest Reserve holds cultural significance for neighborhood groups. it could be associated with conventional beliefs, ceremonies, or practices that are deeply embedded in the cultural heritage of human beings.^[41][42]
• Non secular significance: some areas within the wooded area may additionally hold unique religious or religious significance for positive groups. Sacred groves, for instance, are not unusual capabilities in lots of forests and are respected as sacred places of worship or as a spiritual tribute to the magnificence of nature.^[43]
• Historical Relevance: The forest may also have historical ties to the community, serving as a place of ancient events, settlements, or ancient practices. these connections can be of splendid significance to the cultural identification of the neighborhood populace.^[44][45]

The Akure Forest Reserve, like many natural areas worldwide, faces various demanding situations and threats that jeopardize its ecological integrity and the advantages it gives to communities.^[46] The reserve is home to a wide variety of plant and animal life, including many endangered species.^[47] However, the reserve faces a number of challenges and threats, including encroachment and deforestation, poaching and illegal logging, and the impacts of climate change.^[47][48]

1. Encroachment and deforestation:
   • Population Pressure: Rapid population growth and urbanization in and around the Akure Forest Reserve can lead to increased demand for land and resources.^[49] This can result in encroachment, where people settle, cultivate land, or engage in other activities within the forest's boundaries.^[50]
   • Agricultural Expansion: Agricultural activities, particularly subsistence farming and commercial agriculture, may encroach upon the forest.^[51][52] Clearing land for crops, livestock grazing, and infrastructure development can lead to deforestation, which reduces the forest's overall size and ecological health.
   • Illegal Land Conversions: In some cases, illegal land conversions may occur where land-use changes are made without the proper authorization or adherence to land-use regulations.^[51][53][44] This can further exacerbate deforestation and habitat loss.
2. Poaching and Illegal Logging:
   • Wildlife Poaching: Poaching is a significant threat to the biodiversity of the Akure Forest Reserve.^[24] It involves the illegal hunting or capturing of wildlife for various purposes, such as bushmeat, traditional medicine, or the exotic pet trade. This can lead to declines in population numbers and disrupt the ecological balance.^[54]
   • Illegal Logging: Illegal logging involves the unauthorized harvesting of timber and non-timber forest products. This activity often occurs without proper permits or adherence to sustainable logging practices. It can lead to habitat destruction, soil erosion, and the loss of valuable timber resources.^[51][53]
3. Climate Change:
   • Temperature and Precipitation Changes: Climate change is altering the temperature and precipitation patterns in the Akure Forest Reserve. This can impact the growth and distribution of plant species, potentially leading to shifts in vegetation zones and changes in the composition of the forest ecosystem.^[55]
   • Extreme Weather Events: The increasing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, such as storms, droughts, and floods, can damage forest ecosystems and disrupt the natural regeneration processes.^[56] This can make it more challenging for the forest to recover from disturbances.
   • Shifts in Wildlife Behavior and Distribution: Climate change can influence the behavior, migration patterns, and distribution of wildlife species.^[57][58] Some species may struggle to adapt to changing conditions, potentially leading to population declines or local extinctions.^[59]

Addressing these challenges and threats requires a multi-faceted approach that includes effective conservation policies, sustainable land-use planning, community engagement, law enforcement, and climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies.^[51][60] It's crucial to prioritize the long-term health and resilience of the Akure Forest Reserve to ensure it continues to provide valuable ecosystem services and benefits to both nature and society.^[9]

In the contemporary context, global warming is undergoing significant acceleration, primarily due to the excessive release of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Prior to the onset of the industrial revolution, greenhouse gas concentrations remained relatively stable, and human influence on climate was primarily localized. Early human impact on the climate was primarily confined to activities such as deforestation and wetland drainage for agricultural expansion.^{[citation needed]}

In recent times, land use changes, particularly deforestation and extensive wetland drainage, have had a far-reaching impact on the global climate. This phenomenon has been greatly exacerbated by industrialization. Additionally, the intensification of agriculture worldwide has resulted in increased emissions of environmentally significant gases, notably nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4).^[61]

The emissions of aerosols and their precursors through human activities have been on the rise, largely attributed to industrial processes, as well as land and air transportation. These aerosol particles play a significant role in altering radiation within the atmosphere. All of these changes can be attributed to human influence on the climate and have become increasingly apparent. Therefore, the causes of climate change can be categorized into two main factors: anthropogenic (human-induced) and natural.^[62]

Future of Akure Forest Reserve for Sustainable Management:

1. Integrated Conservation Planning:
   • Biodiversity Assessment: Conduct comprehensive biodiversity assessments to understand the flora and fauna present in the reserve. This information can guide conservation efforts and help identify key species and habitats that require protection.^[63]
   • Ecosystem-Based Management: Adopt an ecosystem-based approach that considers the interdependencies of different species and habitats within the forest. This approach ensures that management decisions are holistic and take into account the broader ecological context.^[63]
2. Community Engagement and Empowerment:
   • Stakeholder Involvement: Involve local communities, indigenous groups, and other stakeholders in decision-making processes. Their traditional knowledge and expertise can be invaluable in crafting sustainable management strategies.^[63]
   • Capacity Building: Provide training and capacity-building opportunities to local communities for sustainable resource use, alternative livelihoods, and conservation practices. This empowers them to become active participants in conservation efforts.^[63]
3. Enforcement and Regulation:
   • Law Enforcement: Strengthen law enforcement mechanisms to combat illegal activities such as poaching, illegal logging, and encroachment. This may involve deploying trained personnel, implementing surveillance technology, and establishing effective reporting mechanisms.
   • Policy and Regulation: Develop and enforce clear policies and regulations for land use, resource extraction, and conservation activities within the reserve. These policies should be based on sound scientific evidence and stakeholder input.^[63]
4. Research and Monitoring:
   • Long-Term Monitoring Programs: Establish rigorous monitoring programs to track changes in biodiversity, habitat health, and other ecological indicators. This data is crucial for assessing the effectiveness of conservation measures and adapting management strategies as needed.^[63]
   • Research Initiatives: Encourage research within the reserve to advance scientific understanding of its ecosystems, species, and ecological processes. This can inform evidence-based management decisions.^[63]
5. Sustainable Resource use:
   • Non-Timber Forest Product Management: Implement sustainable harvesting practices for non-timber forest products. This involves setting quotas, regulating harvesting techniques, and promoting value-addition activities that enhance economic benefits without compromising the ecosystem.^[63]
   • Timber Harvesting Guidelines: If timber harvesting is permitted, establish guidelines for sustainable logging practices. This includes selective logging, reforestation efforts, and the use of best management practices to minimize negative impacts.^[64]

Importance of Protecting the Reserve:

1. Biodiversity Conservation:
   • The Akure Forest Reserve is likely home to a rich diversity of plant and animal species, some of which may be rare or endemic. Protecting the reserve ensures the survival of these species and maintains ecological balance.^[65]
2. Ecosystem Services:
   • The forest provides vital ecosystem services like carbon sequestration, water regulation, and soil conservation.^[66] These services have far-reaching benefits for both local communities and the broader environment.
3. Cultural and spiritual Significance:
   • Many forests, including Akure, have cultural and spiritual importance for local communities. They serve as sites for traditional practices, ceremonies, and provide a sense of identity and connection to nature.^[67]
4. Recreation and Tourism:
   • Well-managed reserves can attract tourists and nature enthusiasts, generating economic revenue for local communities.^{[citation needed]} Additionally, recreational activities in the forest can improve the well-being and quality of life for nearby residents.
5. Climate Change Mitigation:
   • Forests play a critical role in mitigating climate change by absorbing and storing carbon dioxide.^[68][69] Protecting the Akure Forest Reserve contributes to global efforts to combat climate change.^[70][2]

In the end, the destiny of the Akure Forest Reserve lies in a sustainable management approach that balances conservation with the needs of neighborhood communities. Protecting the reserve is crucial for retaining biodiversity, providing crucial atmospheric services, respecting cultural heritage, supporting local economies, and mitigating climate trade impacts.^[71] This ensures that the woodland continues to thrive and benefit present and future generations.