Avner Ben-Zaken

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Avner Ben-Zakan (born September 26, 1967) is an Israeli historian of science. He teaches at Ono College and is the co-founder and chair of the Institute for Israeli Thought.

Ben-Zakan was born and raised in Be'er Sheva. His parents immigrated to Israel from Morocco. He completed his undergraduate studies in history and the history of the Middle East at the Hebrew University and later earned his doctorate with honors in the history of science from UCLA. In 2003, he received the Nathan Reingold Prize from the Society for the History of Science (HSS). Currently, he serves as the head of the honor program at Ono Academic College. Additionally, he is a co-founder and the current chair of the Institute for Israeli Thought.

In the years 2004-2008 he was elected as a fellow to the Society of Fellows at Harvard University.

Since 2009 he has been active in the political arena, promoting a civil agenda based on structural reforms in the state apparatus, such as shifting the electoral system to a district electoral system and drafting a constitution for Israel.^[1]

Ben-Zakan is a pioneer in the field of cross-cultural history of science.^[2] His research investigates how science transcends cultural boundaries, arguing that both cultural production in general, and scientific innovation, in particular, occur in spaces where the cultural margins overlap giving an allowance of free and random exchanges, without power dynamics, of information, objects, and cultural norms. These exchanges inspire epistemological challenges that move from marginalized groups to the cultural center, often leading to scientific revolutions. In his most recent books, Ben-Zakan explores cross-cultural scientific exchanges between Europe and the Eastern Mediterranean during the early modern period.

In this book, Ben-Zakan examines the exchange of scientific knowledge between cultures during the Scientific Revolution. Through five detailed case studies, the author explores how specific scientific objects and texts migrated across cultures, revealing the intricate pathways through which scientific knowledge flowed. A key focus is on the dissemination of Copernican cosmology and related discoveries to the eastern Mediterranean, where local astronomers adapted, expanded, and applied these ideas. Adopting a micro-historical approach, the book meticulously tracks the origins of certain devices and texts, who utilized them, how they were transmitted, and their impacts. It emphasizes that local cultures not only benefited from adopting new scientific insights but also that ancient scientific knowledge played a vital role in updating and validating discoveries related to the heliocentric model of the universe. The main argument of the book is that science during the early modern period did not develop along isolated or linear paths, with each culture solely focused on its internal meanings. Instead, it evolved through the exchange of fresh ideas and objects that emerged from interactions at cultural peripheries.^[3] Ben-Zakan argues that Thomas Kuhn's concept of "paradigmatic and cultural incommensurability" should be replaced with a more fluid and dialogical perspective, highlighting cultural margins as the spaces where "normal science" is first challenged and where new paradigms emerge. In conclusion, Ben-Zakan asserts that scientific revolutions often originate in the margins of cultures, while their culmination typically occurs in cultural centers.^[4]

In this book, Ben-Zakan explores how a fundamental concept of modernity—autodidacticism—was shaped through cross-cultural intercultural exchanges.^[5] He argues that the best way to write a cross-cultural history of "modernity" is to examine how an essential modern concept, such as autodidacticism, evolved through cross-cultural transitions. To illustrate this, he focuses on the philosophical treatise that advocates for self-study, known as "Ḥayy Ibn-Yaqṭān." This essay, written by Ibn Tufayl, tells the story of a spontaneously created child living on a deserted island. Without parents, teachers, books, or language, the child uses trial and error to uncover the laws of physics, astronomy, and the principles of Aristotelian metaphysics. Translated during the Enlightenment under titles like "The Self-taught Philosopher" and "On the Improvement of Human Reason," this essay inspired debates about the possibility of acquiring first-hand knowledge and the scientific validity of such knowledge. The book traces the text's migration into early modern Europe and illustrates the complex ways autodidacticism was either embraced or rejected in various cultural contexts. It emphasizes the significant role that philosophical works played in four distinct and disconnected historical moments. Furthermore, the book reveals that pleas for autodidacticism resonated within philosophical circles and were driven by broader struggles over control between individuals and institutions. The intricate migration, circulation, and reception of "Ḥayy Ibn-Yaqẓān" exemplify the evolution of social and individual control.^[6] In 12th-century Marrakesh, Ibn Tufayl sought to temper the unchecked religious fervor of mystics by subjecting them to philosophical scrutiny. In 14th-century Barcelona, Narbonni called for the liberation of adolescents from communal constraints, encouraging a disciplined life of solitude. In 15th-century Florence, Pico della Mirandola challenged the spiritual limitations imposed by divine authority, grounding humanity in the physical reality of nature. Sixteenth-century utopian and scientific societies defied institutional discipline yet promoted a lifestyle of restraint and, at times, asceticism. By the 17th century, experimentalists liberated humanity from metaphysics and developed frameworks of knowledge that emphasized self-discovery through empirical facts and personal credibility. These various historical connections are intertwined, reflecting a shift in social control from institutions to individuals. This evolution contributed to the creation of the "modern man", characterized as a solitary, self-controlled individual who uses reason to anticipate the outcomes of his actions. The rejection of traditional authorities did not result in chaos or complete freedom; instead, it led to the internalization of institutional mechanisms of control. Autodidacticism, therefore, did not signify a loss of control but rather highlighted the necessity for self-control. It shifted the mechanisms of control from society to the individual, replacing history, tradition, and metaphysics with nature, reason, and natural instincts as the ultimate sources of knowledge.^[7]

In this book, Ben-Zakan explores whether communism is viewed primarily as a political ideology or as a cultural imperialism. To shed light on this issue, he examines the development of the communist movement in the Middle East between 1919 and 1948 through a cross-cultural lens. He reveals the cultural tensions that existed between Jewish communists, many of whom were influenced by European ideas, and local communists, both Arab and Jewish. Notably, Ben-Zakan demonstrates for the first time that the Marxist discourse was often perceived as a form of cultural imperialism. This perception was not solely the result of personal or cultural differences; rather, it was significantly influenced by the portrayal of Marxist discourse. It was presented not as a product of European culture and history, but as "scientific" and "objective", thereby claiming universal authority. This notion of the "scientific-objective truth" of Marxism fostered a strong sense of conviction among Jewish communists in Palestine. They believed it was possible to bridge cultural gaps, spread Marxism, and transform local culture and society. This conviction, combined with various complex factors, created a seemingly paradoxical situation in hindsight.^[8] The Jewish communists regulated the local Marxist discourse while also establishing, routing, and organizing communist parties in the Middle East. However, the political culture was far from harmonious. By examining the mechanisms of ideology and the Marxist movement, the book illustrates that cultural interactions often evoke feelings of foreignness, leading to opposing directions. Thus, the central argument of the book is that universal concepts, whether scientific or ethical, are not necessarily perceived as culturally neutral.^[9]

Ben-Zaken has long advocated for structural reforms^[10] within the state apparatus to adapt to the rapidly changing economic and cultural landscape.^[11] He has consistently emphasized the need to transition Israel's electoral system to a district-based model, arguing that this change would enhance stability and better align political representatives with the interests of the populace.^[12] He co-founded the Institute for Israeli Thought to advance these reforms and establish a solid foundation for Israel. His political vision is articulated in the Israeli Covenant, which places Israeli civic nationalism at its core.

• Ben-Zaken, Avner. Reading "Ḥayy Ibn-Yaqẓān: a Cross-Cultural History of Autodidacticism, The Johns Hopkins University Press, cop. 2011, ISBN 978-0-8018-9739-9
• Ben-Zaken, Avner. Cross-cultural Scientific Exchanges in the Eastern Mediterranean, 1560-1660, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010, ISBN 0-8018-9992-3
• בן זקן, אבנר, קומוניזם כאימפריאליזם תרבותי: הזיקה בין הקומוניזם הארצישראלי לקומוניזם הערבי, 1948-1919, רסלינג, 2006