Crisis of the late Middle Ages

The crisis of the Middle Ages was a series of events in the 14th and 15th centuries that ended centuries of European stability during the late Middle Ages.^[1] Three major crises led to radical changes in all areas of society: demographic collapse, political instability, and religious upheavals.^[2]

Crisis of the late Middle Ages
c. 1300 – c. 1500
Europe and the surrounding areas in the 14th century
Key events	Great Famine of 1315–1317 Black Death Great Schism Popular revolts in late medieval Europe Hundred Years’ War

The Great Famine of 1315–1317 and the Black Death of 1347–1351 potentially reduced the European population by half or more as the Medieval Warm Period came to a close and the first century of the Little Ice Age began. It took until 1500 for the European population to regain the levels of 1300.^[2] Popular revolts in late medieval Europe and civil wars between nobles such as the English Wars of the Roses were common, with France fighting internally nine times. There were also international conflicts between kingdoms such as France and England in the Hundred Years' War.

The unity of the Catholic Church was shattered by the Western Schism. The Holy Roman Empire was also in decline. In the aftermath of the Great Interregnum (1247–1273), the empire lost cohesion and the separate dynasties of the various German states became more politically important than their union under the emperor.^{[citation needed]}

The expression "crisis of the late Middle Ages" is commonly used in western historiography,^[3] especially in English and German, and somewhat less in other western European scholarship, to refer to the array of crises besetting Europe in the 14th and 15th centuries. The expression often carries a modifier to specify it, such as the urban ^[4] crisis of the late Middle Ages, or the cultural,^[5] monastic,^[6] religious,^[7] social,^[7] economic,^[7] intellectual,^[7] or agrarian^[8] crisis, or a regional modifier, such as the Catalan^[9] or French^[1] crisis.

By 1929, the French historian Marc Bloch was already writing about the effects of the crisis,^[10] and by mid-century there were academic debates being held about it.^[1][10] In his 1981 article "Late Middle Age Agrarian Crisis or Crisis of Feudalism?", Peter Kriedte reprises some of the early works in the field from historians writing in the 1930s, including Marc Bloch, Henri Pirenne, Wilhelm Abel, and Michael Postan.^[8] Referring to the crisis in Italy as the "Crisis of the 14th Century", Giovanni Cherubini alluded to the debate that already by 1974 had been going on "for several decades" in French, British, American, and German historiography.^[11]

Arno Borst (1992) states that it "is a given that fourteenth century Latin Christianity was in a crisis", goes on to say that the intellectual aspects and how universities were affected by the crisis is underrepresented in the scholarship hitherto ("When we discuss the crisis of the late Middle Ages, we consider intellectual movements beside religious, social, and economic ones"), and gives some examples.^[7]

Some question whether "crisis" is the right expression for the period at the end of the Middle Ages and the transition to Modernity. In his 1981 article "The End of the Middle Ages: Decline, Crisis or Transformation?" Donald Sullivan addresses this question, claiming that scholarship has neglected the period and viewed it largely as a precursor to subsequent climactic events such as the Renaissance and Reformation.^[12]

In his "Introduction to the History of the Middle Ages in Europe", Mitre Fernández wrote in 2004: "To talk about a general crisis of the late Middle Ages is already a commonplace in the study of medieval history."^[3]

Heribert Müller, in his 2012 book on the religious crisis of the late Middle Ages, discussed whether the term itself was in crisis:

No doubt the thesis of the crisis of the late Middle Ages has itself been in crisis for some time now, and hardly anyone considered an expert in the field would still profess it without some ifs and buts, and especially so in the case of German Medieval historians.^[13]

In his 2014 historiographical article about the crisis in the Middle Ages, Peter Schuster quotes the historian Léopold Genicot's 1971 article "Crisis: From the Middle Ages to Modern Times": "Crisis is the word which comes immediately to the historian's mind when he thinks of the fourteenth and the fifteenth centuries."^[14]

The Medieval Warm Period ended sometime towards the end of the 13th century. This marked the start of the Little Ice Age,^[15] which resulted in harsher winters with reduced harvests. In Northern Europe, new technological innovations such as the heavy plough and the three-field system were not as effective in clearing new fields for harvest as they were in the Mediterranean because the north had poor, clay-like soil.^[16] Food shortages and rapidly inflating prices were a fact of life for as much as a century before the plague. Wheat, oats, hay and consequently livestock were all in short supply.^[16]

Their scarcity resulted in malnutrition, which increases susceptibility to infections due to weakened immune systems. In the autumn of 1314, heavy rains began to fall, which were the start of several years of cold and wet winters.^[16] The already weak harvests of the north suffered, and a seven-year famine ensued. In the years 1315 to 1317, a catastrophic famine, known as the Great Famine, struck much of North West Europe. It was arguably the worst in European history, perhaps reducing the population by more than 10%.^[16]

Most governments instituted measures that prohibited exports of foodstuffs, condemned black market speculators, set price controls on grain and outlawed large-scale fishing. At best, they proved mostly unenforceable and at worst they contributed to a continent-wide downward spiral. The hardest hit lands, like England, were unable to buy grain from France because of the prohibition, and from most of the rest of the grain producers because of crop failures from shortage of labor. Any grain that could be shipped was eventually taken by pirates or looters to be sold on the black market.^[16]

Meanwhile, many of the largest countries, most notably England and Scotland, had been at war. This resulted in them using up much of their treasury and creating inflation. In 1337, on the eve of the first wave of the Black Death, England and France went to war in what became known as the Hundred Years' War. This situation was worsened when landowners and monarchs such as Edward III of England (r. 1327–1377) and Philip VI of France (r. 1328–1350), raised the fines and rents of their tenants out of a fear that their comparatively high standard of living would decline.^[16]

When a typhoid epidemic emerged, many thousands died in populated urban centres, most significantly Ypres (now in Belgium). In 1318, a pestilence of unknown origin, which some contemporary scholars now identify as anthrax, targeted the animals of Europe. Sheep and cattle were particularly affected, further reducing the food supply and income of the peasantry.^[17]

The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this section, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new section, as appropriate. (November 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

As Europe moved out of the Medieval Warm Period and into the Little Ice Age, a decrease in temperature and a great number of devastating floods disrupted harvests and caused mass famine. The cold and the rain proved to be particularly disastrous from 1315 to 1317 in which poor weather interrupted the maturation of many grains and beans, and flooding turned fields rocky and barren.^[18][19] Scarcity of grain caused price inflation, as described in one account of grain prices in Europe in which the price of wheat doubled from twenty shillings per quarter in 1315 to forty shillings per quarter by June of the following year.^[18] Grape harvests also suffered, which reduced wine production throughout Europe. The wine production from the vineyards surrounding the Abbey of Saint-Arnould in France decreased as much as eighty percent by 1317.^[19] During this climatic change and subsequent famine, Europe's cattle were struck with The Great Bovine Pestilence, a pathogen of unknown identity.^[20]

The pathogen spread throughout Europe from Eastern Asia in 1315 and reached the British Isles by 1319.^[20] Manorial accounts of cattle populations in the year 1319–20 place a 62 percent loss in England and Wales alone.^[20] In these countries, some correlation can be found between the places where poor weather reduced crop harvests and places where the bovine population was particularly negatively affected.^[20] It is hypothesized that both low temperatures and lack of nutrition lowered the cattle populations' immune systems and made them vulnerable to disease.^[20] The mass death and illness of cattle drastically affected dairy production, and the output did not return to its pre-pestilence amount until 1331.^[20] Much of the medieval peasants' protein was obtained from dairy, and milk shortages likely caused nutritional deficiency in the European population. Famine and pestilence, exacerbated with the prevalence of war during this time, led to the death of an estimated ten to fifteen percent of Europe's population.^[19][20]

The Black Death was a particularly devastating epidemic in Europe during this time, and is notable due to the number of people who succumbed to the disease within the few years the disease was active. It was fatal to an estimated thirty to sixty percent of the population where the disease was present.^[21] While there is some question of whether it was a particularly deadly strain of Yersinia pestis that caused the Black Death, research indicates no significant difference in bacterial phenotype.^[22] Thus, environmental stressors are considered when hypothesizing the deadliness of the Black Plague, such as crop failures due to changes in weather, the subsequent famine, and an influx of host rats into Europe from China.^[21][23]

There were some popular uprisings in Europe before the 14th century, but these were local in scope, for example uprisings at a manor house against an unpleasant overlord. This changed in the 14th and 15th centuries when new downward pressures on the poor^{[clarification needed]} resulted in mass movements and popular uprisings across Europe. To indicate how common and widespread these movements became, in Germany between 1336 and 1525 there were no less than sixty phases of militant peasant unrest.^[24]

Scholars such as David Herlihy and Michael Postan use the term Malthusian limit to explain some calamities as results of overpopulation. In his 1798 Essay on the Principle of Population, Thomas Malthus asserted that exponential population growth will invariably exceed available resources, making mass death inevitable. In his book The Black Death and the Transformation of the West, David Herlihy explores whether the plague was an inevitable crisis of population and resources. In The Black Death; A Turning Point in History? (ed. William M. Bowsky), he "implies that the Black Death's pivotal role in late medieval society... was now being challenged. Arguing on the basis of a neo-Malthusian economics, revisionist historians recast the Black Death as a necessary and long overdue corrective to an overpopulated Europe."^{[citation needed]}

Herlihy also examined the arguments against the Malthusian crisis, stating "if the Black Death was a response to excessive human numbers it should have arrived several decades earlier"^[25] in consequence of the population growth before the Black Death. Herlihy also brings up other, biological factors that argue against the plague as a "reckoning" by arguing "the role of famines in affecting population movements is also problematic. The many famines preceding the Black Death, even the 'great hunger' of 1315 to 1317, did not result in any appreciable reduction in population levels".^[25] Herlihy concludes the matter stating, "the medieval experience shows us not a Malthusian crisis but a stalemate, in the sense that the community was maintaining at stable levels very large numbers over a lengthy period" and states that the phenomenon should be referred to as more of a deadlock, rather than a crisis, to describe Europe before the epidemics.^[25]: 34

• A Distant Mirror: The Calamitous 14th Century
• Crisis of the Third Century
• History of science in the Middle Ages
• Renaissance of the 12th century
• The Autumn of the Middle Ages
• The General Crisis

• Abel, Wilhelm (1934). "Bevölkerungsgang u. Landwirtschaft im ausgehenden Mittealter im Lichte der Preis- u. Lohnbewegung" [Population and Agriculture in the late Middle Ages in the light of price and wage fluctuations]. Schmollers Jahrbuch für Gesetzgebung, Verwaltung und Volkswirtschaft im Deutschen Reiche (in German). Berlin: Duncker & Humblot. pp. 33–43. OCLC 224602624.
• Bloch, Marc; Dauvergne, Robert Marie (1960) [1st pub. Oslo 1931]. Les caractères originaux de l'histoire rurale française (in French). Armand Colin. OCLC 925568328.
• Merrill, Robert (1987). Sir Thomas Malory and the Cultural Crisis of the Late Middle Ages. American University Studies. Series 4. New York: Peter Lang Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8204-0303-8.
• Merton, Thomas (29 November 1999). Mystics and Zen Masters. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 188. ISBN 978-1-4299-4400-7. OCLC 643880738.
• Phythian-Adams, Charles (27 June 2002) [1st pub. 1979]. Desolation of a City: Coventry and the Urban Crisis of the Late Middle Ages. Past and present publications. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-52500-8. OCLC 49784573.
• Pirenne, Henri (1969) [1st pub. 1933 in Gustave Glotz, ed., Histoire général, vol. 3, Histoire du Moyen-Age (Paris)]. Histoire Économique Et Sociale Du Moyen Âge (in French). Paris: Presses Univ. de France. OCLC 1024502195.
• Postan, Michael M. (1939). "Revisions in Economic History: IX.-The Fifteenth Century". Economic History Review. 9 (2): 160–167. doi:10.2307/2590221. JSTOR 2590221.

• Bois, Guy (October 1998). "Discussion: On the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages". The Medieval History Journal. 1 (2): 311–321. doi:10.1177/097194589800100206. ISSN 0971-9458. S2CID 220680346.
• Felschow, Eva-Marie (1985). Wetzlar in der Krise des Spätmittelalters [Wetzlar in the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages] (in German). Darmstadt: Selbstverl. der Hessischen Historischen Kommission Darmstadt und der Historischen Kommission für Hessen. ISBN 9783884431511.
• Garí de Aguilera, Blanca; Hernando Delgado, Josep; Riu Riu, Manuel (2005). "10. Crisi de la Baixa Edat Mitjana" [Crisis of the Late Middle Ages]. Història medieval universal [Universal Medieval History]. Textos docents, 25 (in Catalan). Edicions Universitat Barcelona. p. 58. ISBN 978-84-475-2947-6. OCLC 432958704.
• Heimann, Heinz-Dieter (1993). Hausordnung und Staatsbildung: innerdynastische Konflikte als Wirkungsfaktoren der Herrschaftsverfestigung bei den wittelsbachischen Rheinpfalzgrafen und den Herzögen von Bayern : ein Beitrag zum Normenwandel in der Krise des Spätmittelalters [House Rules and State Formation: Inner-Dynastic Conflicts as Factors in the Consolidation of Power Among the Wittelsbach Rulers and the Dukes of Bavaria: A Contribution to the Changing Standards in the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages]. Quellen und Forschungen aus dem Gebiet der Geschichte, n.F., Heft 16. (in German). Paderborn: Schöningh. ISBN 978-3-506-73266-8. OCLC 1013358047.
• Maglio, Gianfranco (2006). "4. L'ultimo medioevo". L'idea costituzionale nel Medioevo: dalla tradizione antica al 'costituzionalismo cristiano' [The Constitutional Idea in the Middle Ages: from Ancient Tradition to 'Christian Constitutionalism']. Fondamenti medievali della civiltà europea, 1 (in Italian). Verona: Il Segno Gabrielli Editori. p. 163. ISBN 978-88-88163-80-2. OCLC 68909698. 1. Crisi del Trecento e conseguenze sociali e spirituali
• Ruggiero, Romano; Comba, Rinaldo; Coulet, Noel (April 15, 2013). La crisi del trecento: tra il medioevo e l'età moderna [The Crisis of the 14th Century: between the Middle Ages and the Modern Age]. La Storia - Corriere della Sera 11 (in Italian). RCS MediaGroup-Divisione quotidiani. OCLC 955752874.
• Seibt, Ferdinand; Eberhard, Winfried (1984). Europa 1400 : die Krise des Spätmittelalters [Europe 1400: the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages] (conference pub.) (in German). Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta. ISBN 978-3-608-91210-4. OCLC 185691852.

• "'The Waning of the Middle Ages': Crisis and Recovery, 1300–1450"—Lecture 11, Western Civilization to 1650 (42.125), M. Hickey, Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania