Crystallographic point group

In crystallography, a crystallographic point group is a three dimensional point group whose symmetry operations are compatible with a three dimensional crystallographic lattice. According to the crystallographic restriction it may only contain one-, two-, three-, four- and sixfold rotations or rotoinversions. This reduces the number of crystallographic point groups to 32 (from an infinity of general point groups). These 32 groups are one-and-the-same as the 32 types of morphological (external) crystalline symmetries derived in 1830 by Johann Friedrich Christian Hessel from a consideration of observed crystal forms. In 1867 Axel Gadolin, who was unaware of the previous work of Hessel, found the crystallographic point groups independently using stereographic projection to represent the symmetry elements of the 32 groups.^[1]: 379

In the classification of crystals, to each space group is associated a crystallographic point group by "forgetting" the translational components of the symmetry operations. That is, by turning screw rotations into rotations, glide reflections into reflections and moving all symmetry elements into the origin. Each crystallographic point group defines the (geometric) crystal class of the crystal.

The point group of a crystal determines, among other things, the directional variation of physical properties that arise from its structure, including optical properties such as birefringency, or electro-optical features such as the Pockels effect.

The point groups are named according to their component symmetries. There are several standard notations used by crystallographers, mineralogists, and physicists.

For the correspondence of the two systems below, see crystal system.

In Schoenflies notation, point groups are denoted by a letter symbol with a subscript. The symbols used in crystallography mean the following:

• C_n (for cyclic) indicates that the group has an n-fold rotation axis. C_nh is C_n with the addition of a mirror (reflection) plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation. C_nv is C_n with the addition of n mirror planes parallel to the axis of rotation.
• S_2n (for Spiegel, German for mirror) denotes a group with only a 2n-fold rotation-reflection axis.
• D_n (for dihedral, or two-sided) indicates that the group has an n-fold rotation axis plus n twofold axes perpendicular to that axis. D_nh has, in addition, a mirror plane perpendicular to the n-fold axis. D_nd has, in addition to the elements of D_n, mirror planes parallel to the n-fold axis.
• The letter T (for tetrahedron) indicates that the group has the symmetry of a tetrahedron. T_d includes improper rotation operations, T excludes improper rotation operations, and T_h is T with the addition of an inversion.
• The letter O (for octahedron) indicates that the group has the symmetry of an octahedron, with (O_h) or without (O) improper operations (those that change handedness).

Due to the crystallographic restriction theorem, n = 1, 2, 3, 4, or 6 in 2- or 3-dimensional space.

D_4d and D_6d are actually forbidden because they contain improper rotations with n=8 and 12 respectively. The 27 point groups in the table plus T, T_d, T_h, O and O_h constitute 32 crystallographic point groups.

An abbreviated form of the Hermann–Mauguin notation commonly used for space groups also serves to describe crystallographic point groups. Group names are

Crystal family	Crystal system	Hermann-Mauguin		Shubnikov[2]	Schoenflies	Orbifold	Coxeter	Order
		(full)	(short)
Triclinic		1	1	${\displaystyle 1\ }$	C1	11	[ ]+	1
		1	1	${\displaystyle {\tilde {2}}}$	Ci = S2	×	[2+,2+]	2
Monoclinic		2	2	${\displaystyle 2\ }$	C2	22	[2]+	2
		m	m	${\displaystyle m\ }$	Cs = C1h	*	[ ]	2
		${\displaystyle {\tfrac {2}{m}}}$	2/m	${\displaystyle 2:m\ }$	C2h	2*	[2,2+]	4
Orthorhombic		222	222	${\displaystyle 2:2\ }$	D2 = V	222	[2,2]+	4
		mm2	mm2	${\displaystyle 2\cdot m\ }$	C2v	*22	[2]	4
		${\displaystyle {\tfrac {2}{m}}{\tfrac {2}{m}}{\tfrac {2}{m}}}$	mmm	${\displaystyle m\cdot 2:m\ }$	D2h = Vh	*222	[2,2]	8
Tetragonal		4	4	${\displaystyle 4\ }$	C4	44	[4]+	4
		4	4	${\displaystyle {\tilde {4}}}$	S4	2×	[2+,4+]	4
		${\displaystyle {\tfrac {4}{m}}}$	4/m	${\displaystyle 4:m\ }$	C4h	4*	[2,4+]	8
		422	422	${\displaystyle 4:2\ }$	D4	422	[4,2]+	8
		4mm	4mm	${\displaystyle 4\cdot m\ }$	C4v	*44	[4]	8
		42m	42m	${\displaystyle {\tilde {4}}\cdot m}$	D2d = Vd	2*2	[2+,4]	8
		${\displaystyle {\tfrac {4}{m}}{\tfrac {2}{m}}{\tfrac {2}{m}}}$	4/mmm	${\displaystyle m\cdot 4:m\ }$	D4h	*422	[4,2]	16
Hexagonal	Trigonal	3	3	${\displaystyle 3\ }$	C3	33	[3]+	3
		3	3	${\displaystyle {\tilde {6}}}$	C3i = S6	3×	[2+,6+]	6
		32	32	${\displaystyle 3:2\ }$	D3	322	[3,2]+	6
		3m	3m	${\displaystyle 3\cdot m\ }$	C3v	*33	[3]	6
		3${\displaystyle {\tfrac {2}{m}}}$	3m	${\displaystyle {\tilde {6}}\cdot m}$	D3d	2*3	[2+,6]	12
	Hexagonal	6	6	${\displaystyle 6\ }$	C6	66	[6]+	6
		6	6	${\displaystyle 3:m\ }$	C3h	3*	[2,3+]	6
		${\displaystyle {\tfrac {6}{m}}}$	6/m	${\displaystyle 6:m\ }$	C6h	6*	[2,6+]	12
		622	622	${\displaystyle 6:2\ }$	D6	622	[6,2]+	12
		6mm	6mm	${\displaystyle 6\cdot m\ }$	C6v	*66	[6]	12
		6m2	6m2	${\displaystyle m\cdot 3:m\ }$	D3h	*322	[3,2]	12
		${\displaystyle {\tfrac {6}{m}}{\tfrac {2}{m}}{\tfrac {2}{m}}}$	6/mmm	${\displaystyle m\cdot 6:m\ }$	D6h	*622	[6,2]	24
Cubic		23	23	${\displaystyle 3/2\ }$	T	332	[3,3]+	12
		${\displaystyle {\tfrac {2}{m}}}$3	m3	${\displaystyle {\tilde {6}}/2}$	Th	3*2	[3+,4]	24
		432	432	${\displaystyle 3/4\ }$	O	432	[4,3]+	24
		43m	43m	${\displaystyle 3/{\tilde {4}}}$	Td	*332	[3,3]	24
		${\displaystyle {\tfrac {4}{m}}}$3${\displaystyle {\tfrac {2}{m}}}$	m3m	${\displaystyle {\tilde {6}}/4}$	Oh	*432	[4,3]	48

Many of the crystallographic point groups share the same internal structure. For example, the point groups 1, 2, and m contain different geometric symmetry operations, (inversion, rotation, and reflection, respectively) but all share the structure of the cyclic group C₂. All isomorphic groups are of the same order, but not all groups of the same order are isomorphic. The point groups which are isomorphic are shown in the following table:^[3]

Hermann-Mauguin	Schoenflies	Order	Abstract group
1	C1	1	C1	${\displaystyle G_{1}^{1}}$
1	Ci = S2	2	C2	${\displaystyle G_{2}^{1}}$
2	C2	2
m	Cs = C1h	2
3	C3	3	C3	${\displaystyle G_{3}^{1}}$
4	C4	4	C4	${\displaystyle G_{4}^{1}}$
4	S4	4
2/m	C2h	4	D2 = C2 × C2	${\displaystyle G_{4}^{2}}$
222	D2 = V	4
mm2	C2v	4
3	C3i = S6	6	C6	${\displaystyle G_{6}^{1}}$
6	C6	6
6	C3h	6
32	D3	6	D3	${\displaystyle G_{6}^{2}}$
3m	C3v	6
mmm	D2h = Vh	8	D2 × C2	${\displaystyle G_{8}^{3}}$
4/m	C4h	8	C4 × C2	${\displaystyle G_{8}^{2}}$
422	D4	8	D4	${\displaystyle G_{8}^{4}}$
4mm	C4v	8
42m	D2d = Vd	8
6/m	C6h	12	C6 × C2	${\displaystyle G_{12}^{2}}$
23	T	12	A4	${\displaystyle G_{12}^{5}}$
3m	D3d	12	D6	${\displaystyle G_{12}^{3}}$
622	D6	12
6mm	C6v	12
6m2	D3h	12
4/mmm	D4h	16	D4 × C2	${\displaystyle G_{16}^{9}}$
6/mmm	D6h	24	D6 × C2	${\displaystyle G_{24}^{5}}$
m3	Th	24	A4 × C2	${\displaystyle G_{24}^{10}}$
432	O	24	S4	${\displaystyle G_{24}^{7}}$
43m	Td	24
m3m	Oh	48	S4 × C2	${\displaystyle G_{48}^{7}}$

This table makes use of cyclic groups (C₁, C₂, C₃, C₄, C₆), dihedral groups (D₂, D₃, D₄, D₆), one of the alternating groups (A₄), and one of the symmetric groups (S₄). Here the symbol " × " indicates a direct product.

1. Leave out the Bravais lattice type.
2. Convert all symmetry elements with translational components into their respective symmetry elements without translation symmetry. (Glide planes are converted into simple mirror planes; screw axes are converted into simple axes of rotation.)
3. Axes of rotation, rotoinversion axes, and mirror planes remain unchanged.

• Molecular symmetry
• Point group
• Space group
• Point groups in three dimensions
• Crystal system

• Point-group symbols in International Tables for Crystallography (2006). Vol. A, ch. 12.1, pp. 818-820
• Names and symbols of the 32 crystal classes in International Tables for Crystallography (2006). Vol. A, ch. 10.1, p. 794
• Pictorial overview of the 32 groups