Cueca

Not to be confused with cuíca.
A couple dancing Cueca at Palacio de La Moneda during El Dieciocho
People dancing Cueca in 1906.

Cueca (Spanish pronunciation: [ˈkweka]) is a family of musical styles and associated dances from Chile, Argentina, and Bolivia. In Chile, the cueca holds the status of national dance, where it was officially declared as such by the Pinochet dictatorship on September 18, 1979.[1]

Origins

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La Zamacueca, by Manuel Antonio Caro.

While cueca's origins are not clearly defined, it is considered to have mostly European Spanish and arguably indigenous influences. The most widespread version of its origins relates it with the zamacueca which arose in Peru as a variation of Spanish Fandango dancing with criollo. The dance is then thought to have passed to Chile and Bolivia, where its name was shortened and where it continued to evolve. Due to the dance's popularity in the region, the Peruvian evolution of the zamacueca was nicknamed "la chilena", "the Chilean", due to similarities between the dances. Later, after the Pacific War, the term marinera, in honor of Peru's naval combatants and because of hostile attitude towards Chile, was used in place of "la chilena." In March 1879 the writer and musician Abelardo Gamarra[2][3] renamed the “chilena” as the “marinera”.[4][5][6][7][8][9] The Marinera, Zamba and the Cueca styles are distinct from each other and from their root dance, the zamacueca.

Another theory is that Cueca originated in the early nineteenth century bordellos of South America, as a pas de deux facilitating partner finding.[10]

The usual interpretation of this courting dance is zoomorphic: it tries to reenact the courting ritual of a rooster and a hen. The male displays a quite enthusiastic and at times even aggressive attitude while attempting to court the female, who is elusive, defensive and demure. The dance often finishes with the man kneeling on one knee, with the woman placing her foot triumphantly on his raised knee.

In Bolivia, there are many variations throughout the different regions. Cueca styles of La Paz, Potosí and Sucre are the elegant and static versions, whereas in Cochabamba and Tarija the style is much livelier and free. The same could be said with the music where in different regions rhythm and speed slightly differ amongst the regions. While dancing, handkerchiefs are used by both male and female dancers by twirling over the head. It is said the twirling of the handkerchief is a way to lure the woman.[11]

History in Chile

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In Chile, the cueca developed and spread in bars and taverns,[12] which were popular centers of entertainment and parties in the nineteenth century.[13] During Fred Warpole's stay in Chile between 1844 and 1848, he described some characteristics of the dance: guitar or harp accompaniment, hand drumming or tambourine for rhythm, high-pitched singing, and a unique strumming pattern where the guitarist strums all the strings, punctuated by a slap on the guitar body.[14]

The Chilean cueca is not just Zamacueca; it is a blend of different dances of the time, with Zamacueca being just one influential aspect. The Chilean cueca is highly structured in terms of dance, lyrics, and music, akin to early European dances from colonial times. While the genre does incorporate some Afro-oriented aspects like Zamacueca, cueca represents a fusion of various genres. To understand its evolution, one should observe the different Spanish, European, and popular dances of the era. The Arab-Andalusian influence is considered the most significant contribution to cueca in all aspects—dancing, singing, and tempo—and is regarded as its primary root.

During the second half of the nineteenth century, cueca spread to various Latin American countries, where the dance became known simply as the "chilena" (Chilean).[4] In Argentina, cueca first appeared in Cuyo, in the central west of the country near the Chilean border, documented as early as around 1840. Unlike the northeast and central west, in Buenos Aires the dance was known as "cueca" rather than "chilena," with documented presence from the 1850s onward. Similarly, in Bolivia, like much of Argentina, the dance was referred to as "chilena."[6] Chilean sailors and adventurers carried cueca to the Mexican coast,[15] specifically in Guerrero and Oaxaca, where the dance was also called "chilena."[16][17] In Peru, the dance became immensely popular during the 1860s and 1870s[18][19] and was also known as the "chilena."[2][3][20]

Twentieth century

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During the twentieth century, cueca became associated with the common man in Chile, and through them, the dance spread to pre-industrialized urban areas such as La Vega, Estación, and Matadero, which were on the outskirts of Santiago at the time.[21] In the 1970s, cueca and Mexican music enjoyed similar levels of popularity in the Chilean countryside.[22][23] Due to being distinctly Chilean, cueca was chosen by Pinochet's military dictatorship to be promoted.[23]

Cueca was officially declared the national dance of Chile due to its significant presence throughout the country's history, announced via a public decree in the Official Journal (Diario Oficial) on November 6, 1979.[24] Emilio Ignacio Santana, a cueca specialist, argues that the dictatorship's appropriation and promotion of cueca had negative effects on the genre.[23] According to Santana, the dictatorship's endorsement resulted in the wealthy landlord (huaso) becoming the icon associated with cueca, rather than the rural laborer.[23]

Cueca sola

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Cueca sola [es] is a solo variant of the cueca created in 1978 by Violeta Zúñiga and other members of the Association of Families of the Detained-Disappeared (AFDD) as a non-violent protest against the Pinochet dictatorship. In this form of cueca, a woman (arpillerista) dances alone while holding a photograph of her disappeared loved one.

During the television campaign advertising the "No" option in the 1988 Chilean national plebiscite, a group of women (played by real-life relatives of the disappeared) performed the cueca sola. This powerful display of resistance was later re-enacted by surviving members of the group for the 2012 Academy Award-nominated film No, directed by Pablo Larraín.

The symbolic gesture of cueca sola inspired the 1987 song "They Dance Alone (Cueca Solo)" by Sting.

Clothing and dance

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The clothing worn during the cueca dance is traditional Chilean attire. Men typically wear a huaso's hat, shirts, a flannel poncho, riding pants, short jacket, riding boots, and spurs. Women wear flowered dresses.

The cueca dance itself symbolizes a rooster-chicken relationship. The man initiates the dance by approaching the woman and offering his arm. The woman then accompanies him, and together they walk around the room. They eventually face each other, each holding a handkerchief in the air, and begin dancing. Although they do not touch physically, they maintain contact through facial expressions and movements that convey flirtation and courtship.

Throughout the dance, it is customary for the pair to wave a white handkerchief, which is an essential element of the cueca.[citation needed]

Basic structure

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Youth dance group, Santiago.

The basic structure of the cueca is that it is a compound meter in 6
8 or 3
4 and is divided into three sections.

Some differences can be noticed depending on geographical location. There are three distinct variants in addition to the traditional cueca:

  • The northern cueca: The main difference with this version is that there is no singing in the accompanying music which is played with only sicus, zamponas, and brass. trumpets, tubas. Also, both the music and the dance are slower. This dance is done during religious ceremonies and carnival.
  • The cueca from the central region: This genre is mostly seen in Chile. The guitar, accordion, guitarron, and percussion are the prevailing instruments.
  • The Chiloé cueca: This form has the absence of the cuarteta. The seguidilla are repeated and there is a greater emphasis on the way the lyrics are presented by the vocalist.

Contemporary cueca

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Currently, the cueca remains a vibrant tradition primarily celebrated in Chilean countryside regions, especially during the national holidays on September 18th. Cueca tournaments are popular events held around this time of year, showcasing regional variations and styles.

In Bolivia, cueca styles vary significantly by region: cueca paceña, cueca cochabambina, cueca chuquisaqueña, cueca tarijeña, cueca potosina, and cueca chaqueña. While they share a common rhythm, each style differs in speed, costumes, and mannerisms. Cueca styles in La Paz, Potosí, and Sucre are known for their elegance, whereas in Cochabamba and Tarija, the dance is characterized by liveliness. In Bolivia, it is often referred to as "cuequita boliviana."

In Argentina, cueca is danced in various ways across different provinces, predominantly in the northern and western regions such as Mendoza, Chaco, Salta, Jujuy, Catamarca, and La Rioja. Each Argentine province has its distinct style and approach to dancing cueca.

Cueca in Tarija, Bolivia

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Tarija, Bolivia, boasts a few traditional songs accompanied by dances, one of which is the cueca tarijeña. Despite sharing its name with dances from other departments, such as the cueca paceña representing La Paz, each department's dance varies significantly. The cueca tarijeña is known for its upbeat, fun, and playful nature compared to others that are more tranquil. Additionally, Tarija was the first place to incorporate a violin into the song, adding flair and excitement. Since its origin, the cueca has been a source of happiness for dancers due to its lively music and the requirement for partners to engage enthusiastically with each other.[citation needed]

The cueca is danced with a handkerchief, symbolizing affection for others. Participants start with the handkerchief in their right hand, twirling it near their shoulder and then waving it by the left side of their waist on certain beats. Throughout the dance, the man seeks to impress his partner with his dancing skills. The dance reflects Bolivia's male-dominated gender roles; while men perform intricate movements and spin, women mostly sway their hips. It is designed for women to showcase their beauty and for men to display their talent. The women follow the male lead, who decides whether to flirt by placing the handkerchief near her neck and shoulders, hold it behind her neck with both hands, or simply wave it near his shoulder and waist if he chooses not to flirt. This determines whether they will continue dancing together in the next part of the song or find other partners.

See also

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References

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  1. ^ "La cueca - Memoria Chilena". Memoria Chilena: Portal.
  2. ^ a b El Tunante (sábado 8 de marzo de 1879). «Crónica local - No más chilenas». El Nacional. «No más chilenas.—Los músicos y poetas criollos tratan de poner punto final a los bailes conocidos con el nombre de chilenas; quieren que lo nacional, lo formado en el país no lleve nombre extranjero: se han propuesto bautizar, pues, los bailes que tienen el aire y la letra de lo que se lla[ma]ba chilena, con el nombre de Marineras. Tal título tiene su explicación: Primero, la época de su nacimiento será conmemorativa de la toma de Antofagasta por los buques chilenos —cuestión marina. Tendrá la alegría de la marina peruana al marchar al combate —cuestión marina. Su balance gracioso imitará el vaivén de un buque sobre las ajitadas olas —cuestión marina. Su fuga será arrebatadora, llena de brío, endiablada como el combate de las dos escuadras, si llega a realizarse —cuestión marina. Por todas estas razones, los nuevos bailes se llamarán, pues, marineras en vez de chilenas. El nombre no puede ser más significativo, y los músicos y poetas criollos se hallan ocupados en componer para echar a volar por esas calles, letra y música de los nuevos bailes que se bailan, como las que fueron chilenas y que en paz descansen [...] (ortografía original)».
  3. ^ a b Gamarra, Abelardo M. (1899). «El baile nacional». Rasgos de pluma. Lima: V. A. Torres. p. 25. «El baile popular de nuestro tiempo se conoce con diferentes nombres [...] y hasta el año 79 era más generalizado llamarlo chilena; fuimos nosotros los que [...] creímos impropio mantener en boca del pueblo y en sus momentos de expansión semejante título y sin acuerdo de ningún concejo de Ministros, y después de meditar en el presente título, resolvimos sustituir el nombre de chilena por el de marinera (ortografía original)».
  4. ^ a b Chávez Marquina, Juan Carlos (2014). «Historia de Trujillo - Breve historia de la marinera». www.ilustretrujillo.com. Consultado el 4 de marzo de 2014. «Según el [...] argentino Carlos Vega, esta variante [la cueca chilena] tuvo gran éxito en la segunda mitad del siglo XIX, cuyo intercambio musical alcanzó a diversos países de Latinoamérica, incluido Perú. La "cueca" chilena fue conocida en otros países sencillamente como "la chilena", y en Perú, la primera referencia registrada apareció en el periódico El Liberal del 11 de septiembre de 1867, como un canto popular de jarana. Para aquella época, las peculiaridades de la zamacueca adoptaron diversos nombres [...]. "El baile popular de nuestro tiempo se conoce con diferentes nombres [...] y hasta el [18]79 era más generalizado llamarlo chilena; fuimos nosotros los que [...] creímos impropio mantener en boca del pueblo y en momentos de expansión semejante título, y sin acuerdo de ningún Consejo de Ministros, y después de meditar en el presente título, resolvimos sustituir el nombre de chilena por el de marinera [...]" (Gamarra)».
  5. ^ «La marinera» Archived 2013-10-16 at the Wayback Machine (PDF). www.consuladodelperu.com.mx. s/f. p. 2. Consultado el 2 de noviembre de 2012.
  6. ^ a b «Danzas folklóricas argentinas: Coreografías: La cueca - la chilena o norteña» (HTM). www.folkloretradiciones.com.ar. 2005. Consultado el 2007. «Del Perú, alrededor de 1824-25, la zamacueca desciende a Chile, donde es recibida con tal entusiasmo en todas las clases sociales que se convierte en la expresión coreográfica nacional. Los chilenos, a su variante local le llamaron zamacueca chilena que, más tarde por aféresis redujeron la voz zamacueca a sus sílabas finales, cueca. Con el nombre de zamacueca primero y luego con el de cueca chilena, esta danza pantomímica de carácter amatorio pasa a [Argentina] a través de las provincias cuyanas. [En Argentina] el nombre también sufrió modificaciones; en la región de Cuyo quedó el de cueca; para las provincias del noroeste y Bolivia quedó el de chilena. En el Perú se usó también el nombre de chilena como referencia geográfica de la variante de la zamacueca, pero [...] lo cambia por el de marinera [...], nombre con el que perdura hasta hoy».
  7. ^ Holzmann, Rodolfo (1966). Panorama de la música tradicional del Perú (1.ª edición). Lima: Casa Mozart. «El nombre de "marinera" surgió del fervor patriótico de 1879, año en que don Abelardo Gamarra, "El Tunante", bautizó con él a la hasta entonces "chilena", en homenaje a nuestra Marina de Guerra».
  8. ^ Hurtado Riofrío, Víctor (2007). «Abelardo Gamarra Rondó "El Tunante"»(HTM). criollosperuanos.com. Consultado el 30 de mayo de 2011. «Los militares chilenos, tropas invasoras de la Restauración, trajeron de regreso a Lima a nuestra zamacueca, con ligeras variantes, así que la empezaron a llamar chilena en los ambientes militares. Pero, Abelardo Gamarra "El Tunante" [...], en 1879, logra hacer desaparecer aquel nombre bautizando a nuestro baile nacional con el nombre de "marinera"».
  9. ^ Cohen, Susan Joyce (1981). The Twenty Piano 'cuecas' Of Simeon Roncal (Thesis). ProQuest 303198415.
  10. ^ Journeyman Pictures reporter Mark Corcoran's documentary with Mario Rojas and Pinochet-era victims' families on YouTube (please disregard political connotations)
  11. ^ "Traditional Bolivian Music Types: Western Bolivia. Andean Music and Dances".
  12. ^ Pereira Salas, Eugenio (1941). Los orígenes del arte musical en Chile (PDF). Santiago: Imp. Universitaria. pp. 272-273. Retrieved 10 May 2015.
  13. ^ D'Orbigny, Alcide, II, 1839-1843: 336. Cf. Merino. 1982: 206. D'Orbigny hace referencia a las chinganas que se hallaban en el barrio de El Almendral en Valparaíso durante 1830: «son casas públicas [...] donde se beben refrescos mientras se ve danzar la cachucha, el zapateo, etc., al son de la guitarra y de la voz; es un lugar de cita para todas las clases sociales, [...], pero donde el europeo se encuentra más frecuentemente fuera de lugar».
  14. ^ Walpole, Fred. I. 1850:105-106. Cf. Merino 1982:207.
  15. ^ "Cueca." Britannica Academic, Encyclopædia Britannica, 26 Aug. 2011. academic.eb.com/levels/collegiate/article/cueca/28125#.
  16. ^ Vega, Carlos (1986). "La Zamacueca Cueca Zamba Chilena Marinera". Las danzas populares argentinas (in Spanish). Instituto Nacional de Musicología 'Carlos Vega,' Dirección Nacional de Música, Secretaría de Cultura, Ministerio de Educación y Justicia. pp. 11–41. ISBN 978-950-9726-03-1.
  17. ^ Stewart, Alex (June 2013). "La chilena mexicana es peruana: Multiculturalism, Regionalism, and Transnational Musical Currents in the Hispanic Pacific". Latin American Music Review. 34 (1): 71–110. doi:10.7560/LAMR34103. JSTOR 43282542. S2CID 186972683. ProQuest 1448190733.
  18. ^ León, Javier F. (2014). «Marinera». Bloomsbury Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World - Genres: Caribbean and Latin America (en inglés). vol. 9 (1.ª edición). pp. 451-453. ISBN 978-1-4411-4197-2. Consultado el 11 de julio de 2015. «By the 1860s, a Chilean variant [of the zamacueca] known as the chilena or cueca was the most prevalent type of zamacueca in Peru. After the War of the Pacific (1879-83) and the Chilean occupation of the city of Lima, the name of the dance was changed to marinera in honor of the Peruvian navy and it was declared the national dance of Peru».
  19. ^ Tompkins, William David (s/f). «Afro-Peruvian Traditions». The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music (en inglés). «Probably the most important new national musical genre of the nineteenth century was the zamacueca (or zambacueca), which appeared in coastal Peru not long after 1800. Its choreographic theme, shared with dances derived from it, was a courtship pantomime performed by a man and a woman amid a crowd that accompanied them with rhythmic clapping and supportive shouting. As the dancers advanced and retreated from each other, they rhythmically and provocatively flipped a handkerchief about. The instrumentation varied, but frequently consisted of plucked stringed instruments and a percussive instrument such as the cajon. [...] The zamacueca became popular in many Latin American countries during the mid-1800s, and numerous regional and national variations developed. In the 1860s and 1870s, the zamacueca chilena, a Chilean version of it, was the most popular form in Peru».
  20. ^ Valle Riestra, Víctor Miguel (≥ 1881). «Testimonio del coronel EP Víctor Miguel Valle Riestra sobre la destrucción de Chorrillos». Consultado el 31 de octubre de 2014. «Las coplas de la [...] chilena, se escuchaban al mismo tiempo que las oraciones de los moribundos»
  21. ^ Claro Valdés, Samuel, Carmen Peña Fuenzalida y María Isabel Quevedo Cifuentes (1994). Chilena o cueca tradicional (PDF). Santiago, Chile: Ediciones Universidad Católica de Chile. p. 543. ISBN 956-14-0340-4. Consultado el 22 de mayo de 2015.
  22. ^ Danemann, Manuel (1 January 1975). "Situación actual de la música folklórica chilena. Según el 'Atlas del Folklore de Chile'" [Current situation of Chilean folk music. According to the 'Atlas del Folklore de Chile']. Revista Musical Chilena (in Spanish). 29 (131): 38–86.
  23. ^ a b c d Montoya Arias, Luis Omar; Díaz Güemez, Marco Aurelio (2017-09-12). "Etnografía de la música mexicana en Chile: Estudio de caso". Revista Electrónica de Divulgación de la Investigación (in Spanish). 14: 1–20.
  24. ^ Ministerio Secretaría General de Gobierno (06 de noviembre de 1979), «Decreto 23: Declara a la cueca danza nacional de Chile», Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional de Chile, consultado el 1 de marzo de 2011.
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