French fries

"Fries" and "Hot chips" redirect here. For other uses, see Fries (disambiguation) and Hot chips (disambiguation).

French fries
French fries seasoned with salt
A pile of french fries sprinkled with coarse salt
Alternative namesChips, finger chips, fries, frites, hot chips, steak fries, slap chips
CourseSide dish or snack, rarely as a main dish
Place of originFrance and Belgium
Serving temperatureHot
Main ingredients
VariationsCurly fries, shoestring fries, steak fries, sweet potato fries, chili cheese fries, poutine, crinkle cut fries, waffle fries
Other informationOften served with salt and ketchup, mayonnaise, vinegar, barbecue sauce or other sauce

French fries[a] (or simply fries, also known as chips[b] among other names[c]) are batonnet or julienne-cut[3] deep-fried potatoes of disputed origin from Belgium or France. They are prepared by cutting potatoes into even strips, drying them, and frying them, usually in a deep fryer. Pre-cut, blanched, and frozen russet potatoes are widely used, and sometimes baked in a regular or convection oven; air fryers are small convection ovens marketed for frying potatoes.

French fries are served hot, either soft or crispy, and are generally eaten as part of lunch or dinner or by themselves as a snack, and they commonly appear on the menus of diners, fast food restaurants, pubs, and bars. They are often salted and may be served with ketchup, vinegar, mayonnaise, tomato sauce, or other sauces. Fries can be topped more heavily, as in the dishes of poutine, loaded fries or chili cheese fries. French fries can be made from sweet potatoes instead of potatoes. A baked variant, oven fries, uses less or no oil.[4]

Preparation

Pommes frites with a mayonnaise packet
A hamburger with crispy fries
Fries as a snack in a Dutch restaurant

The standard method for cooking french fries is deep frying, which submerges them in hot fat, nowadays most commonly oil.[5] Vacuum fryers produce potato chips with lower oil content, while maintaining their colour and texture.[6]

The potatoes are prepared by first cutting them (peeled or unpeeled) into even strips, which are then wiped off or soaked in cold water to remove the surface starch, and thoroughly dried.[7][8] They may then be fried in one or two stages. Chefs generally agree that the two-bath technique produces better results.[7][9][10] Potatoes fresh out of the ground can have too high a water content resulting in soggy fries, so preference is for those that have been stored for a while.[11]

In the two-stage or two-bath method, the first bath, sometimes called blanching, is in hot fat (around 160 °C/320 °F) to cook the fries through. This step can be done in advance.[7] Then they are more briefly fried in very hot fat (190 °C/375 °F) to crisp the exterior. They are then placed in a colander or on a cloth to drain, then served. The exact times of the two baths depend on the size of the fries. For example, for 2–3 mm strips, the first bath takes about 3 minutes, and the second bath takes only seconds.[7]

Since the 1960s, most french fries in the US have been produced from frozen Russet potatoes which have been blanched or at least air-dried industrially.[12][11][13][14] The usual fat for making french fries is vegetable oil. In the past, beef suet was recommended as superior,[7] with vegetable shortening as an alternative. McDonald's used a mixture of 93% beef tallow and 7% cottonseed oil until 1990, when they changed to vegetable oil with beef flavouring.[15][16] Horse fat was standard in northern France and Belgium until recently,[17] and is recommended by some chefs.[18]

Chemical and physical changes

French fries are fried in a two-step process: the first time is to cook the starch throughout the entire cut at low heat, and the second time is to create the golden crispy exterior of the fry at a higher temperature. This is necessary because if the potato cuts are only fried once, the temperature would either be too hot, causing only the exterior to be cooked and not the inside, or not hot enough where the entire fry is cooked, but its crispy exterior will not develop. Although the potato cuts may be baked or steamed as a preparation method, this section will only focus on french fries made using frying oil. During the initial frying process (approximately 150 °C), water on the surface of the cuts evaporates off the surface and the water inside the cuts gets absorbed by the starch granules, causing them to swell and produce the fluffy interior of the fry.[19]

The starch granules are able to retain the water and expand due to gelatinisation. The water and heat break the glycosidic linkages between amylopectin and amylose strands, allowing a new gel matrix to form via hydrogen bonds which aid in water retention. The moisture that gets trapped within the gel matrix is responsible for the fluffy interior of the fry. The gelatinised starch molecules move towards the surface of the fries "forming a thick layer of gelatinised starch" and this layer of pre-gelatinised starch becomes the crisp exterior after the potato cuts are fried for a second time.[20] During the second frying process (approximately 180 °C), the remaining water on the surface of the cuts evaporates and the gelatinised starch molecules that collected towards the potato surface are cooked again, forming the crisp exterior. The golden-brown colour of the fry will develop when the amino acids and glucose on the exterior participate in a Maillard browning reaction.[19]

Name and etymology

In the United States and most of Canada, the term french fries, sometimes capitalised as French fries, or shortened to fries, refers to all dishes of fried elongated pieces of potatoes. Variants in shape and size may have names such as curly fries, shoestring fries, etc.[21]

In the United Kingdom, Australia, South Africa, Ireland and New Zealand, the term chips is generally used instead, though thinly cut fried potatoes are sometimes called french fries or skinny fries, to distinguish them from chips, which are cut thicker. In the US or Canada these more thickly-cut chips might be called steak fries, depending on the shape. The word chips is more often used in North America to refer to potato chips, commonly known in the UK, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa as crisps.[22]

Thomas Jefferson had "potatoes served in the French manner" at a White House dinner in 1802.[23][24] The expression "french fried potatoes" first occurred in print in English in the 1856 work Cookery for Maids of All Work by Eliza Warren: "French Fried Potatoes. – Cut new potatoes in thin slices, put them in boiling fat, and a little salt; fry both sides of a light golden brown colour; drain."[25] This account referred to thin, shallow-fried slices of potato. It is not clear where or when the now familiar deep-fried batons or fingers of potato were first prepared. In the early 20th century, the term "french fried" was being used in the sense of "deep-fried" for foods like onion rings or chicken.[26][27]

One story about the name "french fries" claims that when the American Expeditionary Forces arrived in Belgium during World War I, they assumed that chips were a French dish because French was spoken in the Belgian Army.[28][29] But the name existed long before that in English, and the popularity of the term did not increase for decades after 1917.[30] The term was in use in the United States as early as 1886.[31] An 1899 item in Good Housekeeping specifically references Kitchen Economy in France: "The perfection of French fries is due chiefly to the fact that plenty of fat is used."[32]

Origin

Steak frites in Fontainebleau, France

Spain

In 1673, the Chilean Francisco Núñez de Pineda mentioned eating "papas fritas" in 1629 and women "sent fried and stewed potatoes" to the chiefs.[33] The exact shape is unclear, likely cubes fried in butter which was customary.[33] However, the cane shape originates from Europe.[33]

Fries may have been invented in Spain, the first European country in which the potato appeared from the New World colonies.[34] Professor Paul Ilegems, curator of the Frietmuseum in Bruges, Belgium, believes that Saint Teresa of Ávila of Spain cooked the first french fries, and refers also to the tradition of frying in Mediterranean cuisine as evidence.[35][36]

Belgian–French dispute

The Belgians and French have an ongoing dispute about where fries were invented.[37]

The Belgian food historian Pierre Leclercq has traced the history of the french fry and asserts that "it is clear that fries are of French origin".[38] They became an emblematic Parisian dish in the 19th century. Frédéric Krieger, a Bavarian musician, learned to cook fries at a roaster on rue Montmartre in Paris in 1842, and took the recipe to Belgium in 1844, where he created his business Fritz and sold "la pomme de terre frite à l'instar de Paris" ("Paris-style fried potatoes").[39][40] The modern style of fries born in Paris around 1855 is different from the domestic fried potato that existed in the 18th century.[39]

A Belgian frites shop

From the Belgian standpoint, the popularity of the term "french fries" is explained as "French gastronomic hegemony" into which the cuisine of Belgium was assimilated, because of a lack of understanding coupled with a shared language and geographic proximity of the countries.[37] The Belgian journalist Jo Gérard [fr] claimed that a 1781 family manuscript recounts that potatoes were deep-fried prior to 1680 in the Meuse valley, as a substitute for frying fish when the rivers were frozen.[29][35] Gérard never produced the manuscript that supports this claim, and "the historical value of this story is open to question".[41] In any case, it is unrelated to the later history of the french fry, as the potato did not arrive in the region until around 1735. In any case, given 18th-century economic conditions: "it is absolutely unthinkable that a peasant could have dedicated large quantities of fat for cooking potatoes. At most they were sautéed in a pan".[42]

Global use

Belgium

Fries are very popular in Belgium, where they are known as frieten (in Flemish) or frites (in Belgian French), and the Netherlands, where among the working classes they are known as patat in the north and, in the south, friet(en).[43] In Belgium, fries are sold in shops called friteries (French), frietkot/frituur (Flemish), snackbar (Dutch in The Netherlands) or Fritüre/Frittüre (German). They are served with a large variety of Belgian sauces and eaten either on their own or with other snacks. Traditionally fries are served in a cornet de frites (French), patatzak/frietzak/fritzak (Dutch/Flemish), or Frittentüte (German), a white cardboard cone, then wrapped in paper, with a spoonful of sauce (often mayonnaise) on top.

France

In France and other French-speaking countries, fried potatoes are formally pommes de terre frites, but more commonly pommes frites, patates frites, or simply frites. The words aiguillettes ("needle-ettes") or allumettes ("matchsticks") are used when the french fries are very small and thin. One enduring origin story holds that french fries were invented by street vendors on the Pont Neuf bridge in Paris in 1789, just before the outbreak of the French Revolution.[44] However, a reference exists in France from 1775 to "a few pieces of fried potato" and to "fried potatoes".[45] Eating potatoes for sustenance was promoted in France by Antoine-Augustin Parmentier, but he did not mention fried potatoes in particular. A note in a manuscript in U.S. president Thomas Jefferson's hand (circa 1801–1809) mentions "Pommes de terre frites à cru, en petites tranches" ("Potatoes deep-fried while raw, in small slices"). The recipe almost certainly comes from his French chef, Honoré Julien.[23] The thick-cut fries are called pommes Pont-Neuf[7] or simply pommes frites (about 10 mm or 3⁄8 in); thinner variants are pommes allumettes (matchstick potatoes; about 7 mm or 1⁄4 in), and pommes paille (potato straws; 4 mm or 1⁄8 in). Pommes gaufrettes are waffle fries. A popular dish in France is steak frites, which is steak accompanied by thin french fries.

Germany

Currywurst and fries, Germany

French fries migrated to the German-speaking countries during the 19th century. In Germany, they are usually known by the French words pommes frites, or only Pommes or Fritten (derived from the French words, but pronounced as German words).[46] Often served with ketchup or mayonnaise, they are popular as a side dish in restaurants, or as a street-food snack purchased at an Imbissstand (snack stand). Since the 1950s, currywurst has become a widely-popular dish that is commonly offered with fries. Currywurst is a sausage (often bratwurst or bockwurst) in a spiced ketchup-based sauce, dusted with curry powder and served with fries.[47]

United Kingdom

Fish and chips

The standard deep-fried cut potatoes in the United Kingdom are called chips, and are cut into pieces between 10 and 15 mm (0.39 and 0.59 in) thick. They are occasionally made from unpeeled potatoes (skins showing). British chips are not the same thing as potato chips (an American term); those are called "crisps" in the UK and some other countries. In the UK, chips are part of the popular, and now international, fast food dish fish and chips. In the UK, the name chips are a separate item to french fries; with chips being more thickly cut than french fries, they can be cooked once or multiple times at different temperatures.[48][49][50] From 1813 on, recipes for deep-fried cut potatoes occur in popular cookbooks.[51] By the late 1850s, at least one cookbook refers to "French Fried Potatoes".[52]

The first commercially available chips in the UK were sold by Mrs 'Granny' Duce in one of the West Riding towns in 1854.[53] A blue plaque in Oldham marks the origin of the fish-and-chip shop, and thus the start of the fast food industry in Britain.[54] In Scotland, chips were first sold in Dundee: "in the 1870s, that glory of British gastronomy – the chip – was first sold by Belgian immigrant Edward De Gernier in the city's Greenmarket".[55] In Ireland the first chip shop was "opened by Giuseppe Cervi", an Italian immigrant, "who arrived there in the 1880s".[56] It was estimated in 2011 that in the UK, 80% of households bought frozen chips each year.[57] Although chips were a popular dish in most Commonwealth countries, the "thin style" french fries have been popularised worldwide in large part by the large American fast food chains such as McDonald's and Burger King.[58]

Netherlands

"Pommes frites" or just "frites" (French), "frieten" (a word used in Flanders and the southern provinces of the Netherlands) or "patat" (used in the north and central parts of the Netherlands) became a national snack.[59] Fries also come in the form of a common Dutch street food, known as Patatje Oorlog, translated to as "war fries". It consists of fries dressed with mayonnaise, a peanut-based satay sauce and garnished with diced raw onions along with a variety of other optional ingredients.[60]

United States

In the United States, the J. R. Simplot Company is credited with successfully commercialising french fries in frozen form during the 1940s. Subsequently, in 1967, Ray Kroc of McDonald's contracted the Simplot company to supply them with frozen fries, replacing fresh-cut potatoes. In 2004, 29% of the United States' potato crop was used to make frozen fries; 90% consumed by the food services sector and 10% by retail.[61] The United States supplies China with most of their french fries, as 70% of China's french fries are imported.[62][63] Pre-made french fries have been available for home cooking since the 1960s, having been pre-fried (or sometimes baked), frozen and placed in a sealed plastic bag.[64] Some fast-food chains dip the fries in a sugar solution or a starch batter, to alter the appearance or texture.[65] French fries are one of the most popular dishes in the United States, commonly being served as a side dish to main dishes and in fast food restaurants. The average American eats around 30 pounds (14 kg) of french fries a year.[66]

New Brunswick

The town of Florenceville-Bristol, New Brunswick in Canada, headquarters of McCain Foods, calls itself "the French fry capital of the world" and also hosts a museum about potatoes called Potato World.[67] McCain Foods is the world's largest manufacturer of frozen french fries and other potato specialities.[68]

Québec

A popular Québécois dish is poutine, such as this one from La Banquise restaurant in Montreal. It is made with french fries, cheese curds and gravy.

French fries are the main ingredient in the Québécois dish known as poutine, a dish consisting of fried potatoes covered with cheese curds and brown gravy. Poutine has a growing number of variations, but it is generally considered to have been developed in rural Québec sometime in the 1950s, although precisely where in the province it first appeared is a matter of contention.[69][70][71] Canada is also responsible for providing 22% of China's french fries.[72][63]

Spain

In Spain, fried potatoes are called patatas fritas or papas fritas. Another common form, involving larger irregular cuts, is patatas bravas. The potatoes are cut into big chunks, partially boiled and then fried. They are usually seasoned with a spicy tomato sauce.[73] Fries are a common side dish in Latin American cuisine or part of larger preparations such as the salchipapas in Peru or chorrillana in Chile.[74][75]

South Africa

Whilst eating 'regular' crispy french fries is common in South Africa, a regional favourite, particularly in Cape Town, is a soft soggy version doused in white vinegar called "slap-chips" (pronounced "slup-chips" in English or "slaptjips" in Afrikaans).[76][77][78] These chips are typically thicker and fried at a lower temperature for a longer period of time than regular french fries.[76] Slap-chips are an important component of a Gatsby sandwich, also a common Cape Town delicacy.[76] Slap-chips are also commonly served with deep fried fish which are also served with the same white vinegar.

Japan

Fried potato (フライドポテト, Furaido poteto) is a standard fast-food side dish in Japan.[79] Inspired by Japanese cuisine, okonomiyaki fries are served with a topping of unagi sauce, mayonnaise, katsuobushi, nori seasoning (furikake) and stir-fried cabbage.[80]

Variants

A child holding tornado fries

French fries come in multiple variations and toppings. Some examples include:

  • Air-fried fries
    Air-fried fries
  • Chili fries
    Chili fries
  • Chili cheese fries
    Chili cheese fries
  • Crinkle-cut fries
    Crinkle-cut fries
  • Curly fries
    Curly fries
  • Curry chips
    Curry chips
  • Dirty fries
    Dirty fries
  • Shoestring fries with blue cheese dressing
    Shoestring fries with blue cheese dressing
  • Sweet potato fries
    Sweet potato fries
  • Waffle fries
    Waffle fries

Accompaniments

Main article: List of accompaniments to french fries

Fries tend to be served with a variety of accompaniments, such as salt and vinegar (malt, balsamic or white), pepper, Cajun seasoning, grated cheese, melted cheese, mushy peas, heated curry sauce, curry ketchup, hot sauce, relish, mustard, mayonnaise, bearnaise sauce, tartar sauce, chili, tzatziki, feta cheese, garlic sauce, fry sauce, butter, sour cream, ranch dressing, barbecue sauce, gravy, honey, aioli, brown sauce, ketchup, lemon juice, piccalilli, pickled cucumber, pickled gherkins, pickled onions or pickled eggs.[95] In Australia, a popular flavouring added to chips is chicken salt.

Nutrition

Oven-baked fries

French fries primarily contain carbohydrates (mostly in the form of starch) and protein from the potato, and fat absorbed during the deep-frying process. Salt, which contains sodium, is almost always applied as a surface seasoning. For example, a large serving of french fries at McDonald's in the United States is 154 grams and includes 350 mg of sodium. The 510 calories come from 66 g of carbohydrates, 24 g of fat and 7 g of protein.[96]

A number of experts have criticised french fries for being very unhealthy. According to Jonathan Bonnet in a Time magazine article, "fries are nutritionally unrecognizable from a spud" because they "involve frying, salting, and removing one of the healthiest parts of the potato: the skin, where many of the nutrients and fiber are found."[97] Kristin Kirkpatrick calls french fries "an extremely starchy vegetable dipped in a fryer that then loads on the unhealthy fat, and what you have left is a food that has no nutritional redeeming value in it at all."[97] David Katz states that "French fries are often the super-fatty side dish to a burger—and both are often used as vehicles for things like sugar-laced ketchup and fatty mayo."[97] Eric Morrissette, spokesperson for Health Canada, states that people should limit their intake of french fries, but eating them occasionally is not likely to be a health concern.[97]

Fries frying in oil

Frying french fries in beef tallow, lard, or other animal fats adds saturated fat to them. Replacing animal fats with tropical vegetable oils, such as palm oil, simply substitutes one saturated fat for another. For many years partially hydrogenated vegetable oils were used as a means of avoiding cholesterol and reducing saturated fatty acid content, but in time the trans fat content of these oils was perceived as contributing to cardiovascular disease.[98] Starting in 2008, many restaurant chains and manufacturers of pre-cooked frozen french fries for home reheating phased out trans-fat–containing vegetable oils.[99][100]

French fries contain some of the highest levels of acrylamides of any foodstuff, and experts have raised concerns about the effects of acrylamides on human health.[101][102] According to the American Cancer Society, it is not clear as of 2013 whether acrylamide consumption affects people's risk of getting cancer.[101] A meta-analysis indicated that dietary acrylamide is not related to the risk of most common cancers, but could not exclude a modest association for kidney, endometrial or ovarian cancers.[102] A lower-fat method for producing a french-fry–like product is to coat "frenched" or wedge potatoes in oil and spices/flavouring before baking them. The temperature will be lower compared to deep frying, which reduces acrylamide formation.[103]

In April 2023, researchers from China suggested a possible link between the consumption of fried food and mental health problems. According to the study, those who frequently consume fried food, especially potatoes, have an increased risk of depression and anxiety, by 7% and 12% respectively, compared to those who do not. The connection was particularly prominent among younger males. However, the causal relationship is not conclusive. The results are still preliminary, and the researchers are uncertain whether consuming fried foods causes mental health problems or individuals with symptoms of anxiety and depression tend to opt for fried foods.[104]

In June 2004, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), with the advisement of a federal district judge from Beaumont, Texas, classified batter-coated french fries as a vegetable under the Perishable Agricultural Commodities Act. This was primarily for trade reasons; french fries do not meet the standard to be listed as a processed food.[105][106] This classification, referred to as the "French fry rule", was upheld in the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit case Fleming Companies, Inc. v. USDA.[107][108]

Environmental impact

A 2022 study estimated the environmental impact of 57,000 food products in the UK and Ireland, finding that French fries have a lower impact on the environment than many other foods.[109]

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to French fries.

References

  1. ^ "chip: definition of chip in Oxford dictionary (British English)". Oxforddictionaries.com. 12 September 2013. Archived from the original on 13 May 2013. Retrieved 16 September 2013.
  2. ^ Indian English, "finger chip". Cambridge Dictionary Online. Archived from the original on 30 October 2014. Retrieved 3 April 2013.
  3. ^ Taihua Mu, Hongnan Sun, Xingli Liu, Potato Staple Food Processing Technology, p. 14, Springer, 2016 ISBN 9811028338.
  4. ^ "Chunky oven chips". BBC Good Food. BBC. Archived from the original on 21 August 2019. Retrieved 7 March 2016.
  5. ^ Amber, Fariha (17 August 2021). "Top tips for making the perfect fries". The Daily Star. Archived from the original on 17 August 2021. Retrieved 17 August 2021.
  6. ^ Garayo, Jagoba; Moreira, Rosana (1 November 2002). "Vacuum frying of potato chips". Journal of Food Engineering. 55 (2): 181–191. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.459.6522. doi:10.1016/S0260-8774(02)00062-6. ISSN 0260-8774.
  7. ^ a b c d e f Saint-Ange, Evelyn (2005) [1927]. La Bonne Cuisine de Madame E. Saint-Ange: The Essential Companion for Authentic French Cooking. Larousse, translation Ten Speed Press. p. 553. ISBN 978-1-58008-605-9.
  8. ^ Fannie Farmer, The Boston Cooking-School Cook Book, 1896, s.v.
  9. ^ Blumenthal, Heston (17 April 2012). "How to cook perfect spuds". The Age. Archived from the original on 2 September 2014. Retrieved 12 October 2012.
  10. ^ Bocuse, Paul (10 December 1998). La Cuisine du marché (in French). Paris: Flammarion. ISBN 978-2-08-202518-8.
  11. ^ a b "Russet Burbank". idahopotato.com. Archived from the original on 6 November 2020. Retrieved 9 January 2018.
  12. ^ "The Making of French Fries". thespruce.com. Archived from the original on 10 December 2017. Retrieved 8 December 2017.
  13. ^ Kirkpatrick, Mary E. (1956). French-frying Quality of Potatoes: As Influenced by Cooking Methods, Storage Conditions, and Specific Gravity of Tubers. Technical Bulletin. Vol. 1142. U.S. Department of Agriculture. p. 3.
  14. ^ "A third of U.S.-grown potatoes become frozen french fries used mostly by food service". Ers.usda.gov. Archived from the original on 17 June 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2022. Typically, about one-tenth of frozen french fries are sold in supermarkets and other retail outlets.
  15. ^ Schlosser, Eric (2001). Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of All-American Meal. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-97789-4
  16. ^ Grace, Francie (5 June 2002). "McDonald's Settles Beef Over Fries". CBS News. Archived from the original on 29 July 2012. Retrieved 4 May 2011.
  17. ^ Hesser, Amanda (5 May 1999). "Deep Secrets: Making the Perfect Fry; The potato of the moment is often a soggy disappointment. Time to take things into your own hands". The New York Times. pp. F1. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 9 April 2022. Retrieved 9 April 2022.
  18. ^ Steingarten, Jeffrey (8 June 2011). The Man Who Ate Everything. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. pp. 401–416. ISBN 978-0-307-79782-7.
  19. ^ a b Mal, Julie (26 October 2019). "Science of making perfect fries". Food Crumbles. Archived from the original on 18 December 2020. Retrieved 11 December 2019.
  20. ^ Kaushik, Nitisha (11 July 2019). "Ultimate Guide to Crispy French Fries". The Countertop Cook. Archived from the original on 6 November 2020. Retrieved 11 December 2019.
  21. ^ a b c d e f g h Lingle, B. (2016). Fries!: An Illustrated Guide to the World's Favorite Food. Chronicle Books. pp. 50–53. ISBN 978-1-61689-504-4. Retrieved 1 July 2017.
  22. ^ "Chips, fries or crisps? Netizens debate over names given to different types of potato chips". The Indian Express. 5 September 2018. Archived from the original on 17 August 2021. Retrieved 17 August 2021.
  23. ^ a b Ebeling, Charles (31 October 2005). "French fried: From Monticello to the Moon, A Social, Political and Cultural Appreciation of the French Fry". The Chicago Literary Club. Archived from the original on 3 February 2007. Retrieved 12 January 2007.
  24. ^ Fishwick, Marshall W (1998). "The Savant as Gourmet". The Journal of Popular Culture. 32 (part 1): 51–58. doi:10.1111/j.0022-3840.1998.3201_51.x. ISSN 0022-3840.
  25. ^ Home: Oxford English Dictionary Archived 17 January 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Oed.com. Retrieved 12 September 2012.
  26. ^ Mackenzie, Catherine (7 April 1935). "Food the City Likes Best". The New York Times Magazine: SM18. Archived from the original on 11 August 2011. Retrieved 15 April 2007. the chef at the Rainbow Room launches into a description of his special steak, its French-fried onion rings, its button mushrooms
  27. ^ Rorer, Sarah Tyson (c. 1902). "Page 211". Mrs. Rorer's New Cook Book. Philadelphia: Arnold & Company. p. 211. Archived from the original on 5 May 2011. Retrieved 12 April 2007. French Fried Chicken
  28. ^ McDonald, George (2007). Frommer's Belgium, Holland & Luxembourg. Wiley Publishing. p. 485. ISBN 978-0-470-06859-5.
  29. ^ a b (in French) Hugues Henry (16 August 2001) "La Frite est-elle belge?" (in French). Archived from the original on 24 May 2013. Retrieved 3 March 2012.. Frites.be. Retrieved 12 September 2012.
  30. ^ Google ngrams for "French fried potatoes" and "French fries" in the US and UK corpora [1]
  31. ^ Anonymous (11 April 1886). "Lunch [classified ad]". Savannah Morning News. Retrieved 2 April 2024.
  32. ^ Handy, Mrs. Moses P. "Kitchen Economy in France", Good Housekeeping, Volumes 28–29 159 Vol XXIX No 1 July 1899 Whole No 249. Retrieved 16 November 2014.
  33. ^ a b c "Este 20 de agosto se celebra el Día Mundial de las Papas Fritas". Diario Crónica. 20 August 2020. Archived from the original on 5 March 2024. "enviaban las papas fritas y guisadas"
  34. ^ Rupp, Rebecca (8 January 2015). "Are French Fries Truly French?". Culture. Archived from the original on 18 January 2022. Retrieved 26 October 2021.
  35. ^ a b Ilegems, Paul (1993). De Frietkotcultuur (in Dutch). Loempia. ISBN 978-90-6771-325-2.
  36. ^ Swalec, Andrea (28 July 2010). "In Belgium, frites aren't small potatoes". Reuters. Archived from the original on 3 March 2022. Retrieved 26 October 2021.
  37. ^ a b Schehr, Lawrence R.; Weiss, Allen S. (2001). French Food: On the Table On the Page and in French Culture. Abingdon: Routledge. p. 158. ISBN 978-0415936286.
  38. ^ "Histoire de la pomme de terre frite". Histoiredelafrite.com. Archived from the original on 29 April 2022. Retrieved 8 June 2022.
  39. ^ a b "Non, les frites ne sont pas belges". Lefigaro.fr. 1 August 2018. Archived from the original on 14 July 2022. Retrieved 8 June 2022.
  40. ^ "Les frites sont-elles belges ou françaises ? Voici enfin la réponse !". Ladepeche.fr. Archived from the original on 16 April 2022. Retrieved 8 June 2022.
  41. ^ Beaufils, Thomas (2004). Les Belges (in French). Paris: le Cavalier bleu. p. 86. ISBN 2-84670-072-9. OCLC 491677873.
  42. ^ Leclercq, Pierre (2 February 2010). La véritable histoire de la pomme de terre frite Archived 9 February 2022 at the Wayback Machine, Musee-gourmandise.be, mentioning the work of Fernand Pirotte on the history of the potato
  43. ^ See this map indicating where patat/friet/frieten is used in the Low Countries
  44. ^ "La frite est-elle Belge ou Française ?". Le Monde (in French). 2 January 2013. Archived from the original on 15 February 2014. Retrieved 3 February 2014.
  45. ^ Le Moyne Des Essarts, Nicolas-Toussaint (1775). Causes célebres curieuses et interessantes, de toutes les cours ..., Volume 5, p. 41 and P. 159. Retrieved 16 November 2014.
  46. ^ "Erste Runde – Pommes frites", Atlas zur deutschen Alltagssprache (AdA), Phil.-Hist. Fakultät, Universität Augsburg, 10. November 2005
  47. ^ "Currywurst | Traditional Sausage Dish From Berlin | TasteAtlas". www.tasteatlas.com. Retrieved 5 March 2024.
  48. ^ Alan Davidson, The Oxford Companion to Food, p. 180, Oxford University Press, 2014 ISBN 0199677336.
  49. ^ Brian Yarvin, The Ploughman's Lunch and the Miser's Feast, p. 83, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2012 ISBN 1558324135.
  50. ^ Mcalpine, Fraser. "Fries or chips? What is the Difference Between French Fries and British Chips?". BBC America. Archived from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 16 July 2020.
  51. ^ Ude, Louis (1822) The French Cook. J. Ebers
  52. ^ Warren, Eliza (c. 1859). The Economical Cookery Book for Housewives, Cooks, and Maids-Of-All-Work, With Hints to the Mistress and Servant. London: Piper, Stephenson, and Spence. p. 88. OCLC 27869877. French Fried Potatoes
  53. ^ Chaloner, W. H.; Henderson, W. O. (1990). Industry and Innovation: Selected Essays. Taylor & Francis ISBN 0714633356.
  54. ^ "Blue Plaques". Oldham.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 May 2021. John Lees – originator of fish and chips. Market Hall, Albion Street, Oldham.
  55. ^ "Dundee Fact File". Dundee City Council. Archived from the original on 8 April 2007. Retrieved 20 March 2007.
  56. ^ "A postcard, Giuseppe Cervi and the story of the Dublin chipper". Come Here To Me!. 14 March 2017. Archived from the original on 1 June 2019. Retrieved 15 March 2017.
  57. ^ "Top Chip Facts". Archived from the original on 11 February 2011. Retrieved 11 February 2011.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link). Lovechips.co.uk. 27 February 2011
  58. ^ "Popularization". today.com. 21 April 2011. Archived from the original on 30 October 2020. Retrieved 3 January 2018.
  59. ^ Schehr, Lawrence R.; Weiss, Allen S. (2001). French Food: On the Table On the Page and in French Culture. Abingdon: Routledge. pp. 158–159. ISBN 978-0415936286.
  60. ^ "Patatje Oorlog: Dutch Street Food".
  61. ^ "Frozen Potato Fries Situation and Outlook". Archived from the original on 15 December 2013. Retrieved 12 September 2012.
  62. ^ "China's US importation". Forbes. Archived from the original on 8 June 2013. Retrieved 7 January 2018.
  63. ^ a b "Potato Imports to China Report". Potatoepro.com. 5 October 2015. Archived from the original on 6 November 2020. Retrieved 7 January 2018.
  64. ^ "Pre-Made Fries". historyoffastfood.com. Archived from the original on 23 November 2020. Retrieved 3 January 2018.
  65. ^ "The Trouble with Fries". The New Yorker. 25 February 2001. Archived from the original on 29 July 2021. Retrieved 17 August 2021.
  66. ^ "Amount of French Fries". Fox News. 22 November 2016. Archived from the original on 25 November 2020. Retrieved 4 January 2018.
  67. ^ N.B. museum celebrates the humble spud | The Chronicle Herald. Thechronicleherald.ca (19 September 2014). Retrieved on 13 November 2016.
  68. ^ Stephenson, Amanda (14 June 2021). "French fry giant McCain Foods' environmental promises could change potato farming in Alberta". Calgary Herald. Archived from the original on 25 October 2021. Retrieved 25 October 2021.
  69. ^ Semenak, Susan (6 February 2015). "Backstage at La Banquise – because it's always poutine week there". Montreal Gazette. Archived from the original on 1 December 2020. Retrieved 27 January 2019.
  70. ^ Sekules, Kate (23 May 2007). "A Staple From Quebec, Embarrassing but Adored". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 14 April 2022. Retrieved 19 May 2008. Article on Poutine coming to New York City
  71. ^ Kane, Marion (8 November 2008). "The war of the curds". The Star. Archived from the original on 9 November 2020. Retrieved 16 December 2001.
  72. ^ "Canada's Imports". frozenfoodsbiz.com. Archived from the original on 8 January 2018. Retrieved 7 January 2018.
  73. ^ "Patatas Bravas". spanish-food.org. Archived from the original on 24 November 2020. Retrieved 12 November 2017.
  74. ^ Gregory, Vanessa (5 November 2009). "Tastes of Newly Fashionable Valparaíso, Chile". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 17 August 2021.
  75. ^ Mishan, Ligaya (18 July 2019). "Peruvian, Fortifying and Frank, at Warique in Queens". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2 January 2022. Retrieved 17 August 2021.
  76. ^ a b c "Slap Chips - a Cape Town favourite". Capetownetc.com. 19 February 2018. Archived from the original on 6 November 2020. Retrieved 28 August 2019.
  77. ^ "Top tips for making the perfect fries". Food24. 1 March 2016. Archived from the original on 13 December 2019. Retrieved 28 August 2019.
  78. ^ Dall, Nick (8 September 2017). "Why South Africans Go Mad for These Soggy Fries". OZY. Archived from the original on 28 August 2019. Retrieved 28 August 2019.
  79. ^ "The best-tasting French fries in Japan are…". Japan Today. 2 September 2012. Archived from the original on 6 June 2021. Retrieved 6 June 2021.
  80. ^ "Okonomiyaki fries". Potatoesgoodness.com. Archived from the original on 6 June 2021. Retrieved 6 June 2021.
  81. ^ Allen Borgen (25 December 2008). "Stop at Picante and say, 'Fill 'er up!'". San Bernardino Sun. Archived from the original on 29 February 2012. Retrieved 22 December 2012.
    Maria Desiderata Montana (18 September 2012). Food Lovers' Guide to® San Diego: The Best Restaurants, Markets & Local Culinary Offerings. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 69. ISBN 978-0-7627-8904-7.
  82. ^ "5 to Try: Cheese fries". Commercial Appeal. Archived from the original on 13 February 2020. Retrieved 3 April 2018.
  83. ^ Zorn, Marc (18 August 2014). "Who Invented Chili Cheese Fries - Vision Launch". Vision Launch. Archived from the original on 24 November 2020. Retrieved 7 July 2017.
  84. ^ Walker, Kylie (12 February 2019). "Have you discovered the glory of curry chips?". SBS. Archived from the original on 17 August 2021. Retrieved 17 August 2021.
  85. ^ Kirwin, Ellen: Liverpool's best dirty fries, cheesy chips and downright filthy food Archived 13 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Liverpool Echo 8 March 2017. Accessed on 13 May 2021.
  86. ^ The U.S. Open is selling a delicious sandwich with french fries on it | For The Win Archived 23 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine. Ftw.usatoday.com (17 June 2016). Retrieved on 13 November 2016.
  87. ^ "Kimchi Fries". Thewoksoflife.com. Archived from the original on 27 June 2021. Retrieved 27 June 2021.
  88. ^ "kimchi fries". Brooklynsupper.com. Archived from the original on 27 June 2021. Retrieved 27 June 2021.
  89. ^ "How to Make Kimchi Fries". Tasteofhome.com. Archived from the original on 27 June 2021. Retrieved 27 June 2021.
  90. ^ Mitchell, Simone. "Frozen microwave chips: Answer to our prayers or culinary nightmare?". News.com.au. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 19 March 2022.
  91. ^ "Oven Fries Recipe". Cooking. The New York Times. Archived from the original on 17 August 2021. Retrieved 17 August 2021.
  92. ^ "'Protect our poutine': Quebec dairy group looks to give gooey dish official status". Saanich News. 19 May 2021. Archived from the original on 17 August 2021. Retrieved 17 August 2021.
  93. ^ Severson, Kim (25 November 2010). "Sweet Potatoes Step Out From Under Marshmallows". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2 January 2022. Retrieved 17 August 2021.
  94. ^ Dubecki, Larissa (26 July 2016). "The quest for the 'Perfect Chip'". Good Food. Archived from the original on 17 August 2021. Retrieved 17 August 2021.
  95. ^ List of accompaniments to french fries – Unlikely Words – A blog of Boston, Providence, and the world Archived 24 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine. Unlikely Words (7 November 2011). Retrieved 12 September 2012.
  96. ^ "McDonald's Nutrition Facts for Popular Menu Items" (PDF). nutrition.mcdonalds.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 October 2011.
  97. ^ a b c d "Fried Potatoes and Acrylamide: Are French Fries Bad For You?" . Time. 11 June 2015. Retrieved 13 November 2016.
  98. ^ "Health Risks". Forbes. Archived from the original on 17 December 2020. Retrieved 4 January 2018.
  99. ^ "McDonalds Trans fats". Reuters. 23 May 2008. Archived from the original on 6 November 2020. Retrieved 4 January 2018.
  100. ^ "Burger King Trans fats". NBC News. Archived from the original on 15 August 2020. Retrieved 4 January 2018.
  101. ^ a b "Acrylamide". American Cancer Society. 1 October 2013. Archived from the original on 20 November 2016. Retrieved 15 September 2014.
  102. ^ a b Pelucchi C, Bosetti C, Galeone C, La Vecchia C (2015). "Dietary acrylamide and cancer risk: an updated meta-analysis". Int. J. Cancer. 136 (12): 2912–22. doi:10.1002/ijc.29339. PMID 25403648. S2CID 26689375.
  103. ^ "Eat Fries—Guilt-Free!". Prevention. 3 November 2011. Archived from the original on 3 January 2018. Retrieved 19 April 2016.
  104. ^ "New research suggests that French fries may be linked to depression". CNN. Archived from the original on 25 April 2023. Retrieved 25 April 2023.
  105. ^ "Country of Origin Labelling: Frequently Asked Questions". Agricultural Marketing Service. 12 January 2009. Archived from the original on 3 February 2009.
  106. ^ Dreyfuss, Ira (16 June 2004). "Batter-Coated Frozen French Fries Called Fresh Vegetable". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 21 January 2017. Retrieved 28 August 2017.
  107. ^ "Agricultural Marketing Agreement Act - vol63_at_958.pdf" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 December 2013. Retrieved 16 September 2013.
  108. ^ "04-40802: Fleming Companies v. Dept of Agriculture :: Fifth Circuit :: US Court of Appeals Cases :: Justia". Law.justia.com. Archived from the original on 10 December 2013. Retrieved 16 September 2013.
  109. ^ Clark, Michael; Springmann, Marco; Rayner, Mike; Scarborough, Peter; Hill, Jason; Tilman, David; Macdiarmid, Jennie I.; Fanzo, Jessica; Bandy, Lauren; Harrington, Richard A. (16 August 2022). "Estimating the environmental impacts of 57,000 food products". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 119 (33): e2120584119. Bibcode:2022PNAS..11920584C. doi:10.1073/pnas.2120584119. eISSN 1091-6490. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 9388151. PMID 35939701.
  1. ^ North American English
  2. ^ British and other national varieties[1]
  3. ^ Finger chips (Indian English),[2] french-fried potatoes

Bibliography

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=French_fries&oldid=1264291968"