Kadazan-Dusun

Kadazan Dusun
Mamasok

Kadazandusun priests and priestesses attires during the opening ceremony of Kaamatan 2014 at Hongkod Koisaan, the unity hall of KDCA
Total population
714,000 (2024)[1]
Regions with significant populations
Malaysia (Sabah, Federal Territory of Labuan, Peninsular Malaysia)
Languages
Dusunic languages (especially Dusun and Kadazan), Malaysian (Sabah Malay dialect), Sabahan English
Religion
Christianity (Mainly Roman Catholic and Protestant) (74.8%), Sunni Islam (22.6%), Momolianism
Related ethnic groups
Dusun, Sino-Native, Rungus, Kadazan, Orang Sungai, Murut, Dusun (Brunei), Lun Bawang/Lun Dayeh
a Yearbook of Statistics: Sabah, 2002 & Sabah Statistics 2020 Data

Kadazandusun (also written as Kadazan-Dusun or Mamasok) are the largest ethnic group in Sabah, Malaysia, an amalgamation of the closely related indigenous Kadazan and Dusun peoples.^[2] "Kadazandusun" is an umbrella term that encompasses both the Kadazan and Dusun peoples. They are also known as Mamasok Sabah, meaning "indigenous people of Sabah". Kadazandusun tradition holds that they are the descendants of Nunuk Ragang. Kadazandusun is recognised as an indigenous nation of Borneo with documented heritage by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) since 2004.^[3] Kadazandusuns are part of the bumiputera in Malaysia having been endowed with rights concerning land, rivers, education and maintaining their own customary laws.

The "Kadazan" term is used among the Tangara/Tangaa' tribe on the west coast of Sabah to refer to themselves. Non-Tangara tribes within the same dialectal and cultural continuum in the interior and eastern part of the state prefer the term "Dusun". Administratively, the Kadazans were called 'Orang Dusun' by the Bruneian Sultanate (or more specifically the tax-collectors). An account of this fact was written by the first census made by the North Borneo Company in Sabah, 1881. Administratively, all Kadazans were categorised as Dusuns.^[4][5]

Through the establishment of the KCA – Kadazan Cultural Association (KCA was later renamed to KDCA – Kadazan-Dusun Cultural Association) in 1960, this terminology was corrected and replaced by 'Kadazan', which was also used as the official designation of the non-Muslim natives by the first Chief Minister of North Borneo, Tun Fuad Stephens @ Donald Stephens. When the Federation of Malaysia was formed in 1963, administratively all Dusuns were referred to as Kadazans which sparked opposition from both Kadazan and Dusun sides who wanted the ethnicity term to be officialised and administrated separately. In 1985 through the KCA, the term Dusun was reintroduced after much pressure from various parties desiring a division between the Kadazan and the Dusuns once again. This action only worsened the conflict by developing the "Kadazan or Dusun identity crisis" into "Kadazan versus Dusun feud". It was also a largely successful and a precursor to the fall of the ruling political state party Parti Bersatu Sabah (PBS).^[4]

In November 1989, through the KCA, PBS coined the new term 'Kadazandusun' to represent both the 'Orang Dusun' and 'Kadazan'. This unified term "Kadazandusun" was unanimously passed as a resolution during the 5th Kadazan Cultural Association's Delegates Conference. During the conference, it was decided that this was the best alternative approach to resolve the "Kadazan versus Dusun" conflicts that had impeded the growth and development of the Kadazandusun since "Kadazan versus Dusun" sentiments were politicised in the early 1960s. It was the best alternative generic identity as well as the most appropriate approach in resolving the "Kadazan versus Dusun" conflicts. Although this action is seen as the best alternative to resolving the ongoing "Kadazan versus Dusun" conflicts since the 1960s, its positive effect is only seen by the year 2000 to the present day when the new generation is no longer in the "Kadazan versus Dusun" feudalism mentality. The unification has since strengthened the ties and brought the Kadazandusun community together as an ethnic group towards more positive and prosperous growth in terms of urbanisation, sociocultural, economic and political development.^[4]

The Orang Sungai or Paitanic group welcomed this resolution, however, the Rungus tribe refused to be called neither as Kadazan, Dusun or any combination of the two. They prefer to be called "Momogun," which means "indigenous people" in Kadazan, Dusun, and Rungus because the three groups belong to the same language family that is Dusunic. Meanwhile, the Muruts and Lundayeh also refused the term, but remain their warm relationship with KDCA and responded positively in ways to unite the two largest Sabahan native groups.

Nowadays, the umbrella term "KDMR" (an acronym for Kadazan, Dusun, Murut, and Rungus) is very popular among the younger generations of the three native groups in Sabah to differ themselves from the Malay or Muslim Bumiputra in the state. Another modification of this term is "Momogun KDMR" in Kadazandusun and Rungus or "Mamagun KDMR" in Murut.

There is no proper historical record that exists pertaining to the origins of the term or its originator. Between the late 1950s and early 1960s, the term "Kadazan" has always been theorised by local folks as derivatives from the word "kakadazan" which means towns, or "kadai" which means shops, the term itself is of a Tangaa' dialect (see Tangga language). The derived term was speculated as a reference to townies, or communities living near shops. This has also been explained in an article by Richard Francis Tunggolou. However, there is evidence that the term has been used long before the 1950s. According to Owen Rutter (The Pagans of North Borneo, 1929, p31), "The Dusun usually describes himself generically as a tulun Tindal (landsman), or on the West Coast, particularly at Papar, as a Kadazan".^[6] Rutter started working in Sabah from 1910, and left Sabah in 1914. During this time interval, both Penampang and Papar district was yet to be developed as towns, therefore rejects the derivation theory altogether. To seek better information of the true meaning of the term "Kadazan", two high priestesses of Borneo or locally referred to as Bobohizan (Kadazan) or Bobolian (Dusun) was interviewed. When the Bobolian of Dusun Lotud descent was asked on the meaning and definition of "Kadazan", her answer was, "people of the land". This definition was endorsed when Bobohizan Dousia Moujing of Kadazan Penampang descent confirmed that the Kadazan has always been used to describe the real people of the land. That substantiated Rutter's remark on Kadazan people in his book.^[4][5]

One interesting fact about the Dusuns is that they do not have the word 'Dusun' in their vocabulary, and the term Dusun is an exonym. Unlike the term "Kadazan," which means "people of the land", "Dusun" means "farm/orchard" in the Malay language. It has been suggested that the term 'Orang Dusun' was a term used by the Sultan of Brunei, who was a Malay to refer to the ethnic groups of inland farmers in present-day Sabah.^[7] Since most of the west coast of North Borneo was under the influence of the Sultan of Indonesia, taxes called 'Duis' (also referred to as the 'River Tax' on the area of southeast of North Borneo) were collected by the sultanate from the 'Orang Dusun', or 'Dusun people'. Hence, since 1881, after the establishment of the British North Borneo Company, the British administration categorised the linguistically similar, 12 main and 33 sub-tribes collectively as 'Dusun' though among themselves they are simply known in their own dialect as just "human" or in their Bobolian term "kadayan" or "kadazan" (in Tangaa version). The Tambanuo and Bagahak, who had converted to Islam for religious reasons, had preferred to be called "Sungei" and "Idaan" respectively although they come from the same sub-tribes. It was also suggested that "Orang Dusun" or "Dusun People" also being used as a term to refer to the forest-dwellers, and farming primitive tribes in the interior of northern Borneo. The usage of this term was then continued by the North Borneo Chartered Company and British colonial governments.

According to a Genome-wide SNP genotypic data studies by human genetics research team from University Malaysia Sabah (2018),^[8] the Northern Borneon Dusun (Sonsogon, Rungus, Lingkabau and Murut) are closely related to Taiwan natives (Ami, Atayal) and non–Austro-Melanesian Filipinos (Visayan, Tagalog, Ilocano, Minanubu), rather than populations from other parts of Borneo Island.

Since the 90s, it has been said that the Kadazandusun people are descendants from China. Most recently, rumour has it that Kadazandusun is closely related, or might be a descendant of the Bunun tribe in Taiwan. Such speculations were made from observed similarities of physical features, and cultures between the Kadazandusun and the Bunun people. However, these rumours were proven irrelevant through both mtDNA and Y-DNA studies.

Maternal or Matrilineal Studies Using mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), is a test used to explore genetic ancestry from the mother using mtDNA that is obtained from outside of a nucleus cell that isn't contaminated by the presence of Y-chromosome. According to a study published in 2014, by Kee Boon Pin on 150 volunteers from the Kadazandusun people all over the Sabah region, the Kadazandusun people belongs to 9 mtDNA Haplogroups (subjected to the numbers and types of samples involved in the study), with Haplogroup M being the highest frequency, where it represents (60/150 40%) of all maternal lineages. Followed by Haplogroup R (26/150 17.33%), Haplogroup E (22/150 14.67%), Haplogroup B (20/150 13.33%), Haplogroup D (9/150 6%), Haplogroup JT (6/150 4%), Haplogroup N (4/150 2.67%), Haplogroup F (2/150 1.33) and Haplogroup HV (1/150 0.67%). These mtDNA Haplogroups have multiple subgroup distribution into several subclades due to genome mutations for thousands of years. The Haplogroup M subclades founded were: M7b1'2'4'5'6'7'8 (22%), M7c3c (12.67%), M31a2 (0.67%), and M80 (3.33%). The Haplogroup E subclades founded were: E1a1a (8%), E1b+16261 (4.67%), and E2 (2%). The Haplogroup B subclades founded were: B4a1a (3.33%), B4b1 (1.33%), B4b1a+207 (3.33%), B4c2 (0.67%), B4j (0.67%), B5a (2%), and B5a1d (1.33%). The Haplogroup D subclades founded were: D4s (1.33%), and D5b1c1 (4.67%). For Haplogroup F, H, JT, R and N, there were only 1 subclade founded for each haplogroup: F1a4a1 (1.33%), HV2 (0.67%), JT (4%), R9c1a (17.33%), N5 (2.67%).^[9] Kee Boon Pin studies confirmed the mtDNA studies conducted by S. G. Tan, on his claim of genetic relation between Kadazandusun to another Taiwan aboriginal, the Paiwan people through the sharing of Haplogroup N as the fundamental DNA.^[10] However, in his studies published in 1979, S.G. Tan did not emphasise the significant of this finding to the Out Of Taiwan theory due to the very small percentage of Haplogroup N found in the Kadazandusun test subjects that is insufficient to represent the whole Kadazandusun ethnicity. S.G. Tan did state that the Kadazandusun ethnic have close genome relation to the other ethnics currently present in Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia and the Philippines, including the Ibans, Visayan, Ifugao, Jakun Aboriginal Malays, Dayak Kalimantan, and Tagalog.^[10][9]

According to Ken-ichi Shinoda in his study published in November 2014, the Bunun ethnic have the mtDNA of haplogroup B (41.5%), followed by F (30.3%), E (23.6%), M (3.4%) and N (1.1%).^[11] Although the Kadazandusun ethnic group shared some of maternal mtDNA haplogroups with the Bunun and Paiwan ethnic groups of Taiwan, the high frequency results of haplogroup M and low frequencies of haplogroups B, E, F and N (insignificant to represent the entire said nation) in the genetics of Kadazandusun ethnicity is enough to refute the theory of Kadazandusun ethnic origin from Taiwan. Kee Boon Pin studies also mentioned that the mtDNA of the Kadazandusun ethnic are more diverse with plenty of variability that is missing which might have depleted (through mutations) in the mtDNA of the Bunun ethnic. Genetic depletion indicates newer mutation from the maternal DNA group. Professor Hirofumi Matsumura, who studies in Genetics and Anthropology, stated that mtDNA sub-haplogroup M7b1'2'4'5'6'7'8 founded in majority of Kadazandusun DNA is one of the oldest mutations from M7 series from haplogroup M that was founded in ancient graveyards in the jungles of Borneo, with estimated age around 12,700 years. It is even older than most discovered ancient M7 series, and spread throughout the Southeast Asia continent creating more M7 mutation series. The mutation series products from M7b1'2'4'5'6'7'8 are present today in several ethnics including Jakun the aboriginal of peninsular Malaysia, Dusun in Brunei, Tagalog and Visayas in the Philippines, and Dayak in Kalimantan and Riau Islands of Indonesia.^[12]

Y chromosome DNA test (Y-DNA test) is a genealogical DNA test that is used to explore a man's patrilineal or direct father's-line ancestry. According to a study by Prof. Dr. Zafarina Zainuddin from Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kadazandusun ethnic belongs to Y-DNA haplogroup of O2-P31 (O-268), which she believes plays an important role in the modern Malay genome sequence.^[13][14] O2-P31 is a mutation product of M214 as a maternal haplogroup with the following mutation sequences: M214> M175> P31> O2. This study was also validated by a genetic study group from National Geographic that revealed STR test results through samples taken from Kadazandusun residents of Belud City in 2011. The STR results were: DYS393: 15 DYS439: 12 DYS388: 12 DYS385a: 16 DYS19: 15 DYS389-1: 13 DYS390: 25 DYS385b: 20 DYS391: 11 DYS389-2: NaN DYS426: 11 DYS392: 13, which explains the specific composition of the Y chromosome according to the Y-DNA haplogroup of O2-P31 (O-M268). Mutation sequences for O2-P31 are shown in the Phylogenetic tree below.

According to the Y-DNA study by Jean A Trejaut, Estella S Poloni, and Ju-Chen Yen, the Bunun ethnic in Taiwan belongs to Y-DNA haplogroups of O1a2-M50 and O2a1a-M88. Both of these Y-DNA haplogroups are also the result of mutations of M214 as their maternal Y-DNA haplogroups with the following mutation sequences: M214> M175> MSY2.2> M119> M50> O1a2, and M214> M175> P31> M95> M88> M111 / M88> PK4> O2a1a.^[15] Mutation sequences for O1a2-M50 and O2a1a-M88 shown in the Phylogenetic tree below.

The age of Y-DNA haplogroup O2-P31 (O-M268) is estimated to be at around 34,100 years through conducted DNA ageing tests on the ancient human bones discovered in Niah Cave, Sarawak.^[16][14] The mean ages of Y-DNA haplogroups of O1a2-M50 and O2a1a-M88 are 33,103 and 28,500, respectively. From the study's result, the claims related to Kadazandusun being ancient migrants from Taiwan are completely irrelevant. This is because the age of the Y-DNA haplogroup O2-P31 belong to the Kadazandusun ethnic group is older compared to the Bunun Y-DNA haplogroups in Taiwan.

Initially, the purpose of starting the genetic haplogroup lineage was to determine the origin of the human lineage. However, the objective is yet to be verified to this day due to a lack of pure evidences that is free from contamination. The results obtained from genetic studies so far can only prove the human global travelling activities, but not as evidence to determine the place of origin of migrating humans.^[12] For example, the discovery of the Tianyuan man that has no conclusive answer to his place of origin.^[17] Based on the mtDNA and Y-DNA studies, as well as philosophies from genetic and anthropology experts, it is plausible to conclude that Kadazandusun people are indeed the aboriginals of Sabah, and Borneo, as well as one of the leading genetic contributors to Southeast Asian societies.

The majority of the Kadazandusuns are Christians, mainly Roman Catholics^[19] and some Protestants.^[20] Islam is also practised by a growing minority, but it is the majority religion amongst the native Dusuns in Ranau.^[21][22][23]

The influence of the English-speaking missionaries in British North Borneo during the late 19th century, particularly the Catholic Mill Hill mission,^[24] resulted in Christianity, in its Roman Catholic form, rising to prominence amongst Kadazans in Penampang as well as Papar in Sabah's West Coast division as well as a large majority of Dusuns in Tambunan district.^[25] A minority are from other Christian denominations, such as Anglicanism and Borneo Evangelical Church (SIB), Lutheranism, True Jesus Church and Seventh-day Adventism.

Before the missionaries came, animism^{[citation needed]} was widely practiced. The religion is Momolianism i.e. the two-way communication between the unseen spirit world and the seen material world facilitated by the services of a category of Kadazandusun people called Bobohizans/Bobolians. The Kadazandusun belief system centers around the spirit or entity called Bambarayon. It revolved around the belief that spirits ruled over the planting and harvesting of rice, a profession that had been practised for generations. Special rituals would be performed before and after each harvest by a tribal priestess known as a Bobohizan.

Harvest Festival or Pesta Kaamatan is an annual celebration by the people of Kadazandusun in Sabah. It is a one-month celebration starting from 1 to 31 May. In modern-day of Kaamatan Festival celebration, 30 and 31 May are the climax dates for the state-level celebration that happens at the place of the yearly Kaamatan Festival host. Today's Kaamatan celebration is very synonymous with beauty pageant competition known as Unduk Ngadau, a singing competition known as Sugandoi, Tamu, non-halal food and beverages stalls, and handicraft arts and cultural performances in traditional houses.^[26]

During the old days, Kaamatan was celebrated to give thanks to ancient God and rice spirits for the bountiful harvesting to ensure continuous paddy yield for the next paddy plantation season. Nowadays, the majority of the Kadazandusun people have embraced Christianity and Islam. Although the Kaamatan is still celebrated as an annual tradition, it is no longer celebrated for the purpose to meet the demands of the ancestral spiritual traditions and customs, but rather in honouring the customs and traditions of the ancestors. Today, Kaamatan is more symbolic as a reunion time with family and loved ones. Domestically, modern Kaamatan is celebrated as per individual personal aspiration with the option of whether or not to serve the Kadazandusun traditional food and drinks which are mostly non-halal.^[27]

A few of the most well known traditional food of the Kadazandusun people are hinava, noonsom, pinaasakan, bosou, tuhau, kinoring, sinalau, pork soup and lihing (rice wine) chicken soup. Some of the well known traditional drinks of Kadazandusun are tapai, tumpung, lihing and bahar.^[28]

The traditional costume of the Kadazandusun is generally called the Koubasanan costume, made out of black velvet fabric with various decorations using beads, flowers, coloured buttons, golden laces, linen, and unique embroidery designs.^[29] The traditional costume that is commonly commercialised as the cultural icon of the Kadazandusun people is the Koubasanan costume from the Penampang district. The koubasanan costume from the Penampang district consists of Sinuangga worn by women and Gaung for men. Sinuangga comes with a waistband called Himpogot (made out of connected silver coins, also known as the money belt), Tangkong (made out of copper loops or rings fastened by strings or threads), Gaung (decorated with gold lace and silver buttons) and a hat that is called Siga (made out of weaved dastar fabric). The decorations and designs of the koubasanan costume are usually varied by region.^[29] For example, the koubasanan dress design for Kadazandusun women of Penampang usually comes in a set of sleeveless blouse combined with long skirts and no hats, while the koubasanan dress design for Kadazandusun women of Papar comes in a set of long sleeves blouse combined with knee-length skirts and wore with a siung hat. There are over 40 different designs of the Koubasanan costume across Sabah that belongs to different tribes of the Kadazandusun community.^[28]

Sumazau dance is the traditional dance of Kadazandusun. Usually, the sumazau dance is performed by a pair of men and women dancers wearing traditional costumes. Sumazau dance is usually accompanied by the beats and rhythms of seven to eight gongs. The opening movement for sumazau dance is the parallel swing of the arms back and forth at the sides of the body, while the feet springs and move the body from left to right. Once the opening dance moves are integrated with the gong beats and rhythms, the male dancer will chant "heeeeee!" (mamangkis) indicating that it is time to change the dance moves. Upon hearing this chant, dancers will raise their hands to the sides of their body and in line with their chest, and move their wrists and arms up and down resembling the movement of a flying bird. There is plenty of choreography of sumazau dance, but the signature dance move of the sumazau will always be the flying bird arms movement, parallel arms swinging back and forth at the sides of the body, and the springing feet.^[28][30]

The Kadazandusun traditional music is usually orchestrated in the form of a band consist of musicians using traditional musical instruments, such as the bamboo flute, sompoton, togunggak, gong, and kulintangan. Musical instruments in Sabah are classified into Cordophones (tongkungon, gambus, sundatang or gagayan), Erophon (suling, turali or tuahi, bungkau, sompoton), and Idofon (togunggak, gong or tagung, kulintangan) and membranophones (kompang, gendang or tontog). The most common musical instruments in Kadazandusun ceremonies are gong and kulintangan. The gong beats usually varies by regions and districts, and the gong beats that is often played at the official Kaamatan celebration in KDCA is the gong beats from the Penampang district.^[28][30]

Kadazandusun people use natural materials as resources in producing handicrafts, including the bamboo, rattan, lias, calabash, and woods. Few of the many handicrafts that are synonym to the Kadazandusun people are wakid, barait, sompoton, pinakol, siung hat, parang, paddy cutter linggaman, and gayang.

Before the mentioned handicrafts were promoted and commercialised to represent the Kadazandusun cultures, they were once tools that were used in daily lives. In fact, some of these handicrafts are still used for its original purpose to this day. Wakid and barait are used to carry harvested crops from farms. Sompoton is a musical instrument. Pinakol is an accessory used in ceremonials and rituals. Parang/machetes, gayang/swords and tandus (a kind of spear) are used as farming and hunting tools, as well as weapons in series of civil wars of the past, which indirectly made the Kadazandusun known as headhunters in the past.^[28]

The practice of headhunting is one of the ancient traditions practiced by the Kadazandusun community during the times of the civil wars. The Kadazandusun refer to this practice as mangayau and the beheader as pangayou or pangait and tonggorib. In the past, Kadazandusun people often go to sangod (war) and behead their enemy's and keep their skull as trophy and for spiritual reason.

The heads of the beheaded enemies were collected not only as triumph trophies but also for spiritual and traditional medicinal practices. The beheading tradition was not intended for the purpose of war alone, but rather to meet the society's cultural demands and expectations, and to fulfill the sacrificial requirements of the ancient rituals.

In the olden times, a Kadazandusun man's pride and power were measured by his courage and physical strength in combat, as well as the number of heads of fallen enemies that were brought home. The "rule of thumb" for headhunting practice was that the defeated enemy had to be alive during the time of the beheading, as it would be meaningless to behead the deceased. This is due to the traditional Kadazandusun belief that man's intelligence, spirit and courage are in his head (called tandahau), while the heart functions as the life source to the body. In other words, a dead heart means dead (useless) head. Shall any beheader go against this rule, the beheader will be condemned by a curse that will bring unfortunate fate upon him.

The Kadazandusuns keep their enemy's skulls in a house called bangkawan. The bobolian will perform a ritual to speak with the spirits in the skulls, now as servants, to ask them to protect their community as they believed the deceased spirits will still remain inside the skulls. Before being placed in the bangkawan, the heads are hung under a huge tree until only the skull remained. A huge rock will be placed under the tree. This rock is called sogindai. The sogindai is then used to keep count of how many heads had been hanged on the tree by making totok (marks) on its surface. For example, 10 totok (marks) on the sogindai rock indicates that ten heads had been hanged on that tree.

The three main ethnic groups in Sabah that are known for headhunting practices history are the Kadazandusun, Rungus and the Murut.^[31][32]

There are five objectives for the headhunting practices.

• In a great war
  • To prove the strength of the heroes and clans over the fallen enemies
  • As war victory evidence
  • The head will be kept in the house of the skull (bangkawan) of the victorious clan
• For small scale civil war or family feud
  • To cease the existence of the enemies and their families
  • The head of the enemy will be kept in the victorious family home for the purpose to enslave the enemy's spirit as a housekeeping talisman/amulet
• Empowering manhood
  • Beheading is a practice that proves courage and bravery
  • A man with no courage and bravery will be out of place in the society and end up spouseless
• Self-promotion as the village head
  • A man must obtain at least 10 heads of the enemy clan in order to gain honour and approvals from his own clan
  • These 10 heads are also important in convincing his clan that he is worthy as a war leader
• Promoting the bravery of a hero
  • The ancient Kadazandusuns believed that the strength and spirit of the beheaded enemy would be gained by the beheader
  • Enemies beheading is also a way in proving the clan that a hero is worthy as a mighty warrior

The beheaded heads will be kept and maintained using ancient practices and rituals. One of the uses of the beheaded heads is as a housekeeper amulet or talisman. The ancient Kadazandusun people believed that every house should have its guardians. Thus, they will use the "tandahau" spirit from the beheaded head for the purpose of protecting the house and its inhabitants from the attacks of enemies and wild animals. It is also important to place beheaded heads under the newly constructed bridge. The ancient Kadazandusuns believed that every river had a spirit of water that is called tambaig. The beheaded heads will be placed or hung below the bridge as a peace offering for the tambaig so that the tambaig will not demolish the bridge. Beheaded heads are also used by bobohizan or bobolian for medical purposes, as well as the worship of the ancestors' spirits. The most common weapons used by the ancient headhunters of the Kadazandusun are Ilang, sakuit/mandau machetes, gayang swords, tandus/adus spears, and a taming wood as a shield. This gruesome practice has been banned and no longer practice today. However, there is a rumour saying that primitive Kadazandusun clans living in isolation in the deep jungles are still actively practising the headhunting culture today. Yet, there has been no evidence to support this claim.^[31][32]

The Kadazandusun Cultural Association Sabah (KDCA), previously known as Kadazan Cultural Association (KCA), is a non-political association of 40 indigenous ethnic communities of Sabah, registered under the Malaysian Societies Act 1966, on 29 April 1966 by the then Deputy Registrar of Societies Malaysia, J. P. Rutherford. It is headed by Huguan Siou Honorable Tan Sri Datuk Seri Panglima Joseph Pairin Kitingan.

The title "Huguan Siou" Office is an institutionalized Paramount Leadership of the Koisaan. The power and responsibility to bestow the Kadazandusun Paramount Leadership Title "Huguan Siou" rests with the KDCA, which, upon the vacancy of the Huguan Siou's Office, may hold an Extraordinary Delegate's Conference to specifically resolve the installation of their Huguan Siou.

However, if no leader is considered worthy of the Huguan Siou's title, the office would rather be left vacant (out of respect for the highly dignified and nearly sacred office of the Kadazandusun's Huguan Siou), until such time as a deserving Kadazandusun leader is undoubtedly established.

The birth of the Society of Kadazan Penampang in 1953 paved the way for the formation of the Kadazan Cultural Association Sabah (KCA) in 1963, which in turn was transformed into the present KDCA on 25 September 1991.

From its inception in the early 1950s, the KDCA has focused much of its efforts on the preservation, development, enrichment, and promotion of the Kadazandusun multi-ethnic cultures. The KDCA's Triennial Delegates Conference provides a forum where the various Kadazandusun multi-ethnic representatives discuss major issues affecting them and their future and take up both individual and collective stands and actions to resolve common challenges.

The KDCA is involved in various activities related to research and documentation, preservation, development, and promotions of the Kadazandusun culture: language and literary works; Bobolians & Rinaits; traditional medicine, traditional food, and beverages; music, songs, dances, and dramas; traditional arts, crafts, and designs; traditional sports; traditional wears and costumes. Lately, along with the growing international cooperation of the world's indigenous peoples, indigenous knowledge, intellectual property, and traditional resource rights conservation, enhancement and protection have also become new areas of the KDCA's concern and responsibility. The KDCA fosters unity, friendship, and co-operation among the multi-racial population of Sabah through its participatory cultural programs and celebrations such as the Village, District and State levels Annual "Kaamatan Festival". It has sent Cultural Performance Troupes on goodwill tours to the other Malaysian States, to neighbouring Asian Countries, to Europe, America, Canada and New Zealand.

KDCA has a youth and students' wing, Kadazandusun Youth Development Movement (KDYDM). The movement's main aims are to encourage more participation of the young generation in the activities of the association and be empowered in various fields so that they would be able to help develop the Kadazandusun community in general.

Kadazandusun is the unification term and collective name for more than 70 sub-tribes or payat in Kadazandusun who call themselves as Dusun or Kadazan. Before the terms "Kadazan" and exonym "Dusun" coined, there is no name for the nation and every tribes and sub-tribes named after their place of origins or the name of their ancestor or their past leader.

"Ethnicity" or "nation" and "people" or "man" in Dusunic languages is known as tinaru/tinau and tulun/tuhun respectively. In Paitanic languages, the word "people" is known as lobu. So Kadazandusun people in their native languages called as Tinaru Kadazandusun.

Linguistically, all Kadazandusun tribes (including Rungus) belong to Dusunic languages family except Dusun Bonggi (variety of Molbog language) and Lahad Datu Dusuns who spoke Idaanic languages, while all Orang Sungai tribes spoke Paitanic languages. Paitanic and Dusunic languages families are closely related, together they formed Greater Dusunic languages family.

General classification of Kadazandusun nation:

• Kadazan, or Tangaa', or Tangara
• Dusun
• Rungus or Momogun
• Orang Sungai, or Lobu, or Paitan

However, only the Kadazans and Dusun classified as a single ethnic group by the government while Rungus and Orang Sungai grouped as "Bumiputera Lain" along with Bisaya, Tidong, Sino-natives and other Sabahan natives ethnic group.

List of Kadazandusun tribes and sub-tribes:

• Penampang Kadazan
  • Inobong Dusun or Tiang
    • Kionop
• Papar Kadazan
• Membakut Kadazan

Central Dusun or Bunduliwan are the largest group of Dusun and concentrated in West Coast, Interior as well as a part of the Kudat division (Kota Marudu district).

• Liwan
  • Gopu, Kapayan, Kinasaraban, Kolikuan, Koundoung, Randagong (Ranau Liwan sub-tribes)
  • Bira/Karanaan, Kuriou, Kohub, Kogibangan, Kuruli, Kawakaan, Kasapang, Kososoluon, Monsok, Montogung, Tolinting (Tambunan Liwan sub-tribes)
• Bundu
• Tindal
• Sinulihan
• Tagahas
  • Pahu (Kiulu Tagahas sub-tribe)
  • Kadayan (Telipok-Manggatal Tagahas)
  • Tibabar (Tambunan Tagahas sub-tribe)
• Tonduk
• Garo
• Luba
• Gobukon

Ulu Sugut Dusun or Talantangic are a group of Central Dusunic sub-tribes that mainly resides in the Ulu Sugut river delta around the borders of Kota Marudu, Beluran, Telupid and also Ranau in the tripoint area of the West Coast, Sandakan and also Kudat divisions, but are also found in Keningau as well as Tambunan districts of the Interior division.

• Talantang
  • Toriwad, Manampaka, Mukin, Pulutan
• Tinagas
• Kogosingan
• Tanggal
• Tilau-Ilau
• Pilantong

Northern Dusun is a grouping of related Dusun tribes in the northern districts of Sabah, especially Kota Marudu and Pitas districts of the Kudat division.

• Tobilung
• Sinandapak
• Kimaragang
• Sonsogon
• Sandayo

Southern Dusun are Dusun tribes mainly found in southern districts of Sabah's West Coast. All Southern Dusun tribes speak Bisayic languages, except Gana (Murutic).

• Lotud
• Kwijau
  • Kwijau/Mempakad (Keningau Kwijau)
  • Papar (Papar Kwijau)
  • Kuizou (Membakut Kwijau)
• Gana
• Bisaya
• Tatana

Eastern Dusun are a Dusun sub-ethnic group found in the Sabah's East Coast specifically in the Beluran, Telupid, Sandakan, Tongod and Kinabatangan districts.

• Dusun Labuk
  • Koroli
  • Kotoring
  • Kivulu
  • Dalamason
  • Sogo
  • Sungangon
  • Tompulung
  • Sogilitan
  • Turavid
    • Turavid
    • Tandaa
    • Tupo
  • Bayok
  • Kavananan
  • Kodundung
  • Kisayap
  • Kisoko
  • Kirulu
  • Liwogu
  • Longgom
  • Lolobuon
  • Malapi
  • Pauh
  • Putih
• Dusun Ulu Kinabatangan
  • Sukang
  • Mangkaak
    • Mangkaak
    • Kunatong
    • Porizou
  • Tindakon
  • Sangau
• Pingas
• Dumpas
• Minokok-Tompizos
  • Minokok
  • Tompizos
• Dusun Lobu
  • Rumanau
  • Lobu

Lahad Datu Dusun are Idaanic-speaking Dusun tribes in Lahad Datu district located in the East Coast of Sabah.

• Subpan/Sagamo
• Begak

Banggi Islands Dusun comprise only one tribe native to Banggi Islands, Kudat district. However, their language is not Dusunic but related to the Molbog language in Palawan, Philippines.

• Dusun Bonggi

• Rungus
  • Kiravangan
  • Pilapazan
  • Gandahon
  • Nulzuw
  • Gonsomon
  • Tupak
  • Tangkarason

Paitan or Tombonuo group:

• Salig Bulud Ondaras
• Puawang
• Diripau
• Sonsoluon
• Lingkobau
• Odas
• Inokang

Kinabatangan group:

• Makiang
• Tampias Lobu
• Rumanau or Lanas Lobu
• Sinabu
• Kolobuan
• Sinarupa

Dumpas group:

• Dumpas

Sukau group:

• Abai or Dewara

Ida'an group:

• Ida'an (they do not claim to be under the Kadazandusun classification)
• Buludupi

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Kadazandusun nation are not monolingual, though dominated by Dusunic speaking tribes as majority, some tribes speak languages belong to other families namely Paitanic, Murutic and Palawanic, all Austronesian. Dusunic languages family consist of two sub-family : Bisayic and Dusun.

Classification

• language family
  • language sub-family
    • language
      • dialect
        • sub-dialect

Dusunic languages family

• Dusunic
  • Bisayic (Southern Dusunic or Bisaya-Lotud)
    • Brunei Dusun language (Sjd)
      • Liang-Telisai (lowland Brunei Dusun
      • Bkit (upland Brunei Dusun)
    • Sarawak Bisaya (Oru)
    • Sabah Bisaya (Bis)
    • Tatana (Dus)
    • Lotud (Dus)
  • Dusun (Northern Dusunic)
    • Papar
    • Coastal Dusun (Kadazan or Tangaa')
      • Penampang Kadazan (Kad)
      • Papar Kadazan (Kad)
    • Southern Dusun (Kwijau)
      • Membakut Kuizou (Kad)
      • Klias Kadazan (Kad)
      • Kwijau (Dus)
    • Minokok (Dus)
    • Dumpas
    • Eastern Dusun (Labuk-Kinabatangan Dusun)
      • Labuk Dusun (Dus)
        • Pilantong
        • Sapi Dusun/Sapi Tindakon
        • Upper Labuk Dusun
      • Turavid (Dus)
      • Kinabatangan Dusun
        • Sukang (Dus)
        • Mangkaak (Dus)
      • Orang Sungai
        • Segaliud Sungai (Sung)
        • Bilit Sungai (Sung)
        • Buang Sayang Sungai (Sung)
      • Tindakon
        • Balat Tindakon (Dus)
        • Kuala Lokan Sungai (Sung)
        • Kulu-Kulu Sungai (Sung)
        • Muara Keramuak Sungai (Sung)
    • Rungus (Run)
      • Nuluw
      • Gonsomon
      • Central Rungus
        • Pilapazan
        • Kiravangan
        • Gandahon
        • Kirapak
        • Tupak
        • Sinandapak
    • Northern Dusun
      • Tobilung (Dus)
      • Maragang language
        • Garo (Dus)
        • Kimaragang (Dus)
        • Sonsogon (Dus)
        • Sandayo (Dus)
    • Sugutic Dusun
      • Sugut Dusun
        • Tanggal (Dus)
        • Tilau-Ilau (Dus)
      • Talantangic
        • Talantang (Dus)
        • Tinagas (Dus)
        • Kogosingan (Dus)
        • Gobukon (Dus)
      • Tuhawon (Dus)
        • Ranau Tuhawon
        • Ulu Monsok/Trusmadi Tuhawon
        • Tambunan valley Tuhawon
        • Penampang Tuhawon (Kionop)
    • Central Dusun or Bunduliwan
      • Liwanic
        • Liwan
        • Inobong Dusun
      • Tindalic
        • Luba-Tonduk
        • Tindal
        • Sinulihan
      • Bunduic
        • Bundu
        • Kadayan
        • Tagahas
        • Papar Dusun or Malapih
        • Tibabar

Paitanic languages family

• Paitanic
  • Paitan-Kinabatangan
    • Paitan Paitanic or Tombonuo
      • Tombonuo (Sun)
      • Lingkobau (Sun)
    • Kinabatangan Paitanic or Kinabatangan Tombonuo
      • Makiang (Sun)
      • Sinarupa (Sun)
      • Sinabu (Sun)
      • Kolobuan (Sun)
      • Rumanau or Dusun Lobu (Dus)
  • Sukau
    • Abai/Sebangan (Sun)

Idanic languages family

Ida'anic

• Ida'anic
  • Ida'an
    • Ida'an (Ida)
    • Bulu Dupi (Sung)
    • Begak (Dus)
    • Subpan'Sagamo (Dus)

Murutic languages family

• Murutic
  • Northern Murut
    • Baukan (Mur)
    • Nabai (Mur)
    • Gana (Dus)

Palawanic languages family

• Palawanic
  • Southern Palawanic
    • Molbog (Mol)
    • Bonggi (Dus)

• Sjd (Suang Jati Dusun Brunei)
• Oru (Orang Ulu)
• Bis (Bisaya)
• Kad (Kadazan)
• Dus (Dusun)
• Run (Rungus)
• Ida (Idahan)
• Sun (Orang Sungai)
• Mur (Murut)

Dusunic languages

Most of the Kadazan and Dusun tribes speaks languages belong to Dusunic languages family. Dusunic split into two branches, Dusun and Bisayic. Dusun branch further split into five group or dialects: Coastal Dusun, Kwijau, Minokok, Eastern Dusun, Rungus, Northern Dusun, Upper Sugut Dusun, and Central Dusun; which are mutually-intelligible among each other.

Coastal Dusun is linguistic name of Kadazan language as it is a Dusunic language spoken only in the western coast of Sabah. Another name is Tangara (Dusun pronunciation) or Tangaa' (Kadazan pronunciation). Kadazan has two dialects: Penampang and Papar, each represent the district where they inhabit. The two dialect are similar with only slight differences. Although Kadazan are not geographically widespread, this language is the second largest Dusunic language as it is spoken by approximately 180,000 people. Sometime Kadazan also considered as dialect of Central Dusun as it is highly mutually-intelligible with Central Dusun.

Central Dusun are the largest Dusunic languages as it is spoken by approximately 300,000 Dusun people. Central Dusun native speakers concentrated in West Coast and Interior Divisions of Sabah. Kadazan Dusun standard language Bunduliwan derived from Bundu and Liwan, the two main dialect and branches of are Tindalic, a dialect almost similar to Bundu The ethnolinguistic term "Kadazan Dusun" was named after the two largest Dusunic peoples of Sabah.

Northern Dusun or Marudu Dusun are grouping of several related Dusunic languages in northern Sabah districts around the Marudu Bay; namely Rungus, Minokok, Tobilung and Garo-Kimaragang-Sonsogon-Sandayo (Maragang language). Although Gobukon, Talantang, Tinagas, Bonggi, and Tindal also spoken in northern districts, they are not included in this group because they belong to other languages group. Rungus often considered as a dinstinct Dusunic language but Combined Northern Dusun speakers numbered approximately 50,000 (including Minokok). Rungus is spoken by its 70,000 people.

Sugutic Dusun is a language named after the group's origin: the upper reach of Sugut river, located in area around the borders of Ranau, Beluran as well as Kota Marudu districts, which straddles the tripoint between the West Coast, Sandakan as well as Kudat Division. This group is also called Talantangic or Talantang group because Talantang is the largest tribes in this group which also consists of several sub-tribes such as Toriwad, Manampaka, Mukim and Pulutan. Other tribes in this group are Tinagas, Tuhawon, Gobukon, Kogosingan (Ranau and Kota Marudu sides), and Tanggal, Tilau-Ilau, and Pilantong (Paitan side). Ulu Sugut Dusun tribes also found in Tambunan and Keningau because they was the first inhabitants of the districts before moved away or assimilated by Bundu and Liwan tribes. Many Liwan speaking sub-tribes in Ranau and Tambunan such as Bira/Karanaan, Monsok, Gunah, Polupu and Kohub was originally Talantang-speaking. Ulu Sugut Dusun language is intermediate between Kimaragang and Central Dusun. 30,0000 Dusun people speaks Ulu Sugut dialect.

Eastern Dusun is the only Dusunic language in the East Coast of Sabah. It sound to be an intermediate between Kadazan, Dusun and Rungus language. Labuk-Kinabatangan Dusun consisted of four main dialects : Upper Labuk Dusun, Upper Kinabatangan Dusun, Tindakon-Sungai and Turavid. While Dumpas developed as a distinct language after they assimilated with Paitanic Orang Sungai and Suluk but they are originally speaks Upper Kinabatangan Dusun. Upper Labuk Dusun dialect spoken around Telupid district while Upper Kinabatangan dialect spoken by Sukang and Mangkaak tribes. Tindakon are widely distributed and consist of several sub-dialects like Sapi, Pilantong, and Balat Dusuns (considered themselves as Dusun) and Segaliud, Bilit, Buang Sayang, Kuala Lokan, Kulu-Kulu and Kuala Keramuak Sungais (called themselves as Orang Sungai). Though Orang Sungai speaks Dusunic dialects, they don't refer themselves as Dusun or Tindakon. Turavid tribe live among the Upper Labuk tribes in Telupid district as newcomers but originally they speaks dialect similar to Rungus or Minokok. Turavid, Upper Labuk, Sapi Dusun and Pilantong speaking tribes make up the Dusun Labuk while Sukang and Mangkaak considered themselves as Dusun (but not Labuk Dusun) while Orang Sungai also consist of Idaanic-speaking Buludupi, Sukau Paitanic and Kinabatangan Paitanic speaking tribes.

Southern Dusun: Bisayic languages and Gana language

Bisayic languages group consist of three languages namely Bisaya-Tatana, Kwijau, and Lotud. All Bisayic tribes are Dusun people, except Bisaya. That is why Bisayic-speaking Dusun sometime called as Southern Dusun because Tatana and Kwijau are languages spoken in southern part of Sabah's West Coast region, while Lotud, though spoken in the central part, is Bisayic in origin. Bisayic languages only partially intelligible with Dusun languages, but all Southern Dusun tribes are able to speaks Bunduliwan and today highly influenced by the standard dialect. For example, Lotud is Bisayic but now mutually-intelligible with Central Dusun due to language adoption and long period of interaction with the Central Dusun people as they live side by side for no shorter than 200 years. Gana, the language speaks by the Dusun Gana tribe is Murutic and probably a variant of Northern Murut dialect of Nabai, but now highly influenced by Dusun language which they can fluently speak. Kwijau, who native speaker live side by side with the Gana in Bingkor, Keningau, also found in Papar and Membakut where they amalgamated with Kadazan. Tatana and Bisaya are two varieties of a same language. Bisaya-Tatana language showed some similarities with Murut language, making it likely an intermediate between Dusunic and Murutic. Southern Dusun dialects spokes by approximately 30,000 Bisaya, 15,000 Tatana, 20,000 Kwijau, 10,000 Gana and 35,000 Lotud.

Paitanic languages family

Paitanic languages family consist of two main branches: Paitan-Kinabatangan and Sukau. Paitan-Kinabatangan are combination of two mutually-intelligible Paitan and Kinabatangan groups. Another branch Sukau Paitanic has only a single language callef Abai or Sebangan. spoken by 2,000 people in Abai village, located in the mouth of Kinabatangan river.

Paitan Paitanic or Tombonuo: Tombonuo, with 20,000 native speakers, is the main language in Paitan group. This language spoken by the Tombonuo tribe and sub-tribes and Orang Sungai (Muslim Tombonuo). Lingkobau is a significant variant of Tombonuo language. Paitan languages concentrated in Beluran district.

Kinabatangan Paitanic: Kinabatangan Paitanic is a grouping of several mutually-intelligible Paitanic languages spoken in Kinabatangan river area across Kinabatangan and Tongod districts, namely Makiang, Sinarupa, Kolobuan, Sinabu, and Rumanau. Makiang dialect is the major language in this group as estimated native speakers of 20,000 people and their language also influenced the Subpan language. Rumanau, also known as Dusun Lobu, is the westernmost Paitanic language as it also spoken in Nunuk Ragang Ranau and Lanas Village in Keningau district.

Sukau Paitanic Sukau Paitanic consist of a single language called Abai or Sabangan, which is distinct and only partially intelligible with Paitan and Kinabatangan. This is maybe because the language was isolated with the rest of Paitanic dialect as it is surrounded by the Bulu Dupi Ida'an. Abai/Sabangan spoken by 2,000 people in Abai village, located in the mouth of Kinabatangan river.

Connection between Dusunic and Paitanic language families

Dusunic languages are closely related to Paitanic languages. Together they form the Greater Dusunic language family. Some Paitanic tribes such as Rumanau or Dusun Lobu (Dusunised Paitanic speaking tribe) and Tombonuo able to speaks mainstream Dusun dialect through learning and assimilation.

Dusun tribes belong to non-Dusunic language

Some Dusun tribe's language are not Dusunic. One of them, the Bonggi language even not in the sphere of Sabahan stock of Austronesian. Bonggi language, spoken by 500 Dusun Bonggi people in Banggi Islands, is a variety of Molbog language of Palawan Islands, Philippines. Another languages Subpan, Sagamo and Begak in Lahad Datu district belong to Idaan language family which loosely related to Dusunic. Subpan are heavily influenced by the Makiang language. Sagamo are similar to Subpan except it was not influenced by Paitanic languages. Generally Dusun Bonggi, Dusun Subpan, Dusun Sagamo, and Dusun Begak people do not able to speaks mainstream Dusun language. But few members who inter-married with Dusun people from the western Sabah region learned to speak it. Lahad Datu Dusun numbered around 6,000 individual (Begak 3,000, Sagamo 1,000 and 2,000 Subpan).

Dusun languages

Dusun languages are a group of languages with approximately 750,000 speakers in Sabah.

Origin

Dusun language is Bisayic in origin (that is why Dusun and Bisayic languages are suited to be grouped together as a single languages family) but also shared many similar words with Paitanic, but Paitanic and Bisayic are not really related. Maybe anchestors of Dusun people was a group of Bisayic-speaking people who migrated to Labuk-Sugut region and interacted with Paitanic people that already settled there. This people retained their Bisayic language but also adopted many words of the Paitanic people. Over time, one group of their descendants moved inland into the middle reach of Labuk River and founded the Nunuk Ragang village. In Nunuk Ragang the proto-Dusun language developed but eventually split into various languages and dialects as the result of migration.

Division

Due to the mass migration, which happened in several waves, the Nunuk Ragang language disintegrated and split into several languages which can be distinguished into 5 main groups: Coastal Dusun, Northern Dusun, Northern Dusun, Ulu Sugut Dusun and Eastern Dusun.

Furthermore, these group can be categorised into four types of dialect:

1. /v/ and /z/ employing lexicon: Rungus, Kadazan (extensively) and Minokok

2. /v/ and /ldz/ employing lexicon: Eastern Dusun

3. /w/ and /j/ employing lexicon: Ulu Sugut Dusun, Northern Dusun

4. /h/ and /y/ employing lexicon: Central Dusun

Development of Nunuk Ragang language through migration

The grouping of Dusun languages above is very important to study the waves of the out from Nunuk Ragang migration. Four types of Dusun languages indicate that there were at least four wave of the migration as each wave of migration bring new development of the Nunuk Ragang language. It seem to be impossible that all Dusun languages developed in Nunuk Ragang because the people must be constantly contacted to each other and must using a single language for easy communication, leaving no chances for any new language to developed in that condition. In contrast, migration to different places caused less contact among the Nunuk Ragang people due to geographical distant, paved the ways to new languages to develop separately. Meanwhile, Nunuk Ragang language itself also changed over time within the group of people who stayed in Nunuk Ragang settlement.

Eastern Dusun as intermediate between Kadazan, Rungus, and Dusun languages hypothesis

If Eastern Dusun is an intermediate between Kadazan, Rungus, and Dusun language ; then it maybe the closest, if not the same, with the Proto-Dusun/Nunuk Ragang language. So the development of this language can be represented by the following example:

Eastern Dusun and probably the proto-Dusun (original Nunuk Ragang language) :

• "tagaldzo" ("z" is not pressed)
• "kivharo"

Kadazan & Rungus:

• "tagazo" ("z" is pressed)
• "(ki)varo" (Rungus & Minokok)
• "kivaa" (Kadazan, /r/ and /s/ lost)

Northern Dusun & Ulu Sugut Dusun :

• "tagajo" ("z" pronounced as "j")
• "kiwaro" (v pronounced as w)

Central Dusun:

• "tagayo" ("j" changed to "y")
• "kiharo ("w" changed to "h" except Liwan)

Proposed wave of migration out of Nunuk Ragang based on the Eastern Dusun hypothesis

Earlier waves: Kadazan, Rungus, and Eastern Dusun

Wave A (Westward group) : Rungus and Kadazan was the earliest groups to migrate out from Nunuk Ragang settlement. It is possible that they initially migrated as a single group before splitting into two: Tangaa' choose to settle in the plain near the coast in Penampang while Rungus moved to Kota Marudu, and further to Kudat after the arrival of Northern Dusun tribes several generations after. Rungus and Kadazan became more "/v/ (pressed) and /z/"-preferred as alternative ways to pronounce proto-Dusun's /v/ (unpressed) and /ldz/. However, today Rungus are related to Northern Dusun languages such as Tobilung and Kimaragang while Kadazan is highly-mutually intelligible with Central Dusun. This is because Rungus and Northern Dusun language live near to each other around Marudu Bay (Northern Dusun arrived there later when Rungus already populated the area) causing often contacts or assimilation between the two groups. Over time, Rungus and Northern Dusun languages developed similarity in accent. Another evidence of why Rungus-Northern Dusun similar in accent can be explained by Minokok-Tompizes proposed theory of origin. Minokok-Tompizes are considered a dialect of Rungus. The tribe maybe a small group of Kota Marudu Rungus who moved south to avoid violent contact with newly arrived Northern Dusun group or possibly to run from it and reached Ulu Kinabatangan. While the Rungus in the north developed similarity in accent with the Northern Dusun, Minokok-Tompizes retained their original accent. That is why Rungus and Minokok are similar in vocabulary but different in accent.

The Kadazan similarity with Central Dusun can be explained with two theories : 1. Like the Rungus case, Kadazan also live near the Central Dusun. Often contacts and inter-marriages make Kadazan and Dusun found the easy way to communicate. 2. Penampang Kadazan are the result of merging of three tribes: Original Kadazan (unknown name but must be the group who migrated in "Wave A" mentioned above), the Tangara and Bangkaakon. If either Tangara or Bangkaakon (or both of them) was a Central Dusun tribe/s, their dialect may had influenced the Kadazan language.

Wave B (Eastward group): Eastern Dusun migration. Labuk-Kinabatangan maybe the closest, if not the same, with the Nunuk Ragang language. Its similarities with Kadazan and Rungus indicates that Labuk-Kinabatangan were also one of the earliest group who leave Nunuk Ragang. At the same time Rungus-Kadazan left Nunuk Ragang westward (Nunuk Ragang located in the centre of Sabah at the upper reach of Labuk river), Eastern Dusun anchestors go eastward. Eastern Dusun probably not much changed from the original Nunuk Ragang language.

Later waves: Northern Dusun, Ulu Sugut Dusun, Central Dusun

In contrast to Kadazan and Rungus; Northern Dusun, Ulu Sugut Dusun, and Central Dusun (then still a single group who stayed in Nunuk Ragang during the earlier first and second wave migration) became more "/w/ and /j/"-preferred as it is easier alternative to pronounce "/v/" and "/ldz/". Northern Dusun and Ulu Sugut eventually also left Nunuk Ragang while Central Dusun followed after several generation as the last group to migrate.

Later Wave (earlier group): Northern Dusun maybe migrated at the same time with Ulu Sugut Dusun group because the two group are linguistically quite similar, both apply /w/ and /j/ in their lexicons. Northern Dusun choose to settled around Kota Marudu today, where they contacted with the Rungus already settled there and developed similarity in accent with the latter. The original Northern Dusun accent may be the same with Ulu Sugut Dusun which can be proved when we look at the similarity in grammar between Kimaragang and Tinagas dialect in Kota Marudu, the only different is in accent. This is another evidence of Rungus-Northern Dusun merging theory. Talantang group migrated from Nunuk Ragang in two directions, one moved to Trusmadi and the other moved far north to Ulu Sugut. Trusmadi group further spread into Tambunan and the rest of Keningau while Ulu Sugut group further spread in Ranau, Kota Marudu and Paitan where they evolved into various sub-tribes.

Later Wave (last group): Central Dusun ancestors must be moved out of Nunuk Ragang after some generation, enough time to evolve the /h/ and /y/ from /w/ and /y/ which they shared with Northern Dusun and Ulu Sugut Dusun when they still a single group who stayed in Nunuk Ragang at the time Kadazan, Rungus, and East Dusun left. As the last group to migrate, they found out that to the east, North, south, and West of Nunuk Ragang was already populated. Eventually they choose to go westward, pass-crossed the Talantang settlement in Ranau and Tambunan, then found unpopulated places near the coast at the upper reach of Kadamaian and Tuaran rivers. There is a story of the origin of Tagahas and Tangara enmity: it is said that before Tangara moved to Penampang plain from Nunuk Ragang, they promised to mark their way so the Tagahas can follow it to join them in the next later. But the Tangara changed their marks cused the following Tagahas behind reached other places, the hilly Ulu Tuaran. So the angry Tagahas began to hate the Tangara. This story is very interesting because we can assume that the Tangara must be also Central Dusun-speaking tribe if they migrate at the same time with Central Dusun-speaking Tagahas. The Tangara eventually assimilated with the Kadazan and their dialect influenced the Kadazan, making it similar to Central Dusun. This theory explaining why Kadazan is mutually-intelligible with Central Dusun.

During this time Central Dusun also began to diverge. The group who settled at the upper reach of Kadamaian and Tuaran rivers (the Bundu) gradually moved to nearby places and further evolved to several tribes. Tribes in the Kadamaian began to call themselves as one name, Tindal to distinguish themselves from the Bajau Sama lived around the lower Tempasuk river near the coast. Group who moved to Tuaran and Kiulu plain are the Bundu. Tribes who remained in the highlands are the Sinulihan and Tagahas. The Tagahas further spread to places nearer to the coast in today Telipok, Menggatal, and Inanam. In Inanam, they assimilated with remaining Tobilung who not migrated to the northern districts. Tagahas also moved to Ulu Papar areas. One group moved back inland to Tambunan, where they engaged in the bloody tribal clash with Bundu-Liwan coalition to control the Tambunan plain. Talantang tribes in Tambunan also divided in the clash; Tibabar sided with Tagahas while Bira/Karangan and Tuhawon supported the Bundu-Liwan.

Liwan is a group of Central Dusun who did not join the move to near coastal areas where they stayed in upper reach of the Kagibangan river, specifically in one of the river's tributary of the river called Tandilwan. This place located in Tambunan-Ranau border. Liwan was named after this river. This group expanded northward to Ranau and southward to Tambunan, moved away or assimilated Talantang tribes in the two districts, making Liwan the dominant Dusun group in there until today. The evidence of Liwan-Talantang assimilation is: while other Central Dusun apply /h/ and /y/ in their dialects, Liwan instead use /w/ like the Talantang.

Central Dusun

Central Dusun are the largest of Dusun languages group, spoken by approximately 300,000 people, making it the mainstream Dusun language. Itself can be divided into two group:

• Liwanic (consist of many varieties, one significant variety with high degree of distinction is Inobong Dusun)
• Bunduic (beside Bundu, also consist of three Bundu-like varieties namely Tindal, Sinulihan, and Tagahas)

All Liwanic and Bunduic varieties are generally similar with some different in lexicon and accent.

Mainstream Dusun language

Mainstream Dusun language means the most widely spoken dialects of Dusun language in Sabah. There are two main dialect of Dusun language: Bundu and Liwan. The two dialect are the easiest to learn and understand among the tribalised Kadazan Dusun people. Usually, Kadazan Dusun people who not belong to any tribe spoke mainstream Dusun language.

Liwan dialect are mostly spoken in the interior region. Eastern Dusun and some Orang Sungai tribes such as Dusun Lobu, who reside in eastern region, also use Liwan when conversing with other Dusun.

Bundu dialect is lingua franca among the Kadazan Dusun people in the north and west coast region. In addition, Rungus, Kadazan, and Southern Dusun tribes speaks Bundu when conversing with Dusun people.

Standard Kadazandusun language

Under the efforts of the Kadazandusun Cultural Association Sabah, combination of Bundu-Liwan dialect with some addition from Kadazan and Rungus words was coined as the standard Kadazandusun language known as Bunduliwan. Bundu-liwan selection was based on it being the most mutually intelligible dialect when conversing with other Dusun or Kadazan dialect.

English	Kadazan	Dusun
What is your name?	Isai ngaan nu?	Isai ngaran nu?
My name is John	Ngaan ku nopo nga i John.	Ngaran ku nopo nga i John.
How are you?	Onu abal nu?	Nunu kabar nu?
I am fine.	Noikot vinasi.	Osonong kopio.
Where is Mary?	Nombo zi Mary?	Nonggo i Mary?
Thank you	Kotohuadan	Pounsikou/Kotoluadan
How much is this?	Pio hoogo/gatang diti?	Piro gatang diti?
I don't understand	Au zou kalati	Au oku karati.
I miss you	Hangadon zou diau	Langadon oku dika
Do you speak English?	Koiho ko moboos do Onggilis?	Koilo ko mimboros do Inggilis?
Where are you from?	Nombo o nontodonon nu?	Honggo tadon nu?
River	Bavang	Bawang

• Anifah Aman, former cabinet minister.
• Alto Linus, former Malaysian and Sabah footballer.
• Arthur Joseph Kurup, current Deputy Minister of Science Technology and Innovation, president for United Sabah People's Party (PBRS) and current member of parliament for Pensiangan.
• Bernard Giluk Dompok, Malaysian ambassador to the Vatican from 2016 to 2018, former chief minister of Sabah and former federal minister.
• Clarence Mansul, former deputy minister of Malaysia and former member of parliament for Penampang.^[33]
• Cornelius Piong, Catholic bishop of the Diocese of Keningau.
• Dass Gregory Kolopis, former Sabah footballer.
• Darell Leiking, former Malaysian cabinet minister and state assemblyman for Moyog.
• Donald Mojuntin, Malaysian politician and lawyer, son of Peter Mojuntin.
• Ewon Benedick, current member of parliament for Penampang.
• Ewon Ebin, former federal minister of Malaysia.
• Fuad Stephens, former first and third chief minister of Sabah and former third Sabah state governor.
• Gunsanad Kina, famous Sabah tribal native chief from Keningau.
• Mohd Hamdan Abdullah, former fourth Sabah state governor.
• Musa Aman, Sabah chief minister from 2003 to 2018.
• Ahmad Koroh, former fifth Sabah governor.
• Mohamad Adnan Robert, former sixth Sabah state governor.
• Jeffrey Kitingan, deputy chief minister of Sabah, current member of Malaysian Parliament for Keningau and state assemblyman for Tambunan.
• Isnaraissah Munirah Majilis, a current member of the Malaysian Parliament for Kota Belud (half Bajau maternal ancestry).
• James Ongkili, former cabinet minister in the 1980s.
• Jonathan Yasin, current member of parliament for Ranau.
• Julius Dusin Gitom, Catholic bishop of the Diocese of Sandakan.
• Juhar Mahiruddin, state governor of Sabah since 2011.
• Joseph Kurup, former federal minister of Malaysia.
• Joseph Pairin Kitingan, former chief minister of Sabah.
• Kasitah Gaddam, former federal Cabinet minister and senator.
• Maximus Ongkili, former minister in the prime minister's Department for Sabah and Sarawak Affairs.
• Peter Anthony, former Sabah state cabinet minister.
• Peter Mojuntin, former fifth State Minister of Local Government and Housing
• Richard Malanjum, 9th chief justice of Malaysia and the 4th chief judge of the High Court in Sabah and Sarawak.
• Ronald Kiandee, former deputy speaker for the Dewan Rakyat and current member of parliament for Beluran.
• Sedomon Gunsanad Kina, tribal chief of Sabah's interior division during the colonial and early nationhood eras in 1963.
• Wilfred Madius Tangau, former federal minister of Sabah and former deputy chief minister of Sabah.
• Stacy, Malaysian singer, hailing from Penampang.
• Marsha Milan, Malaysian singer and actress.
• Adira, Malaysian singer.

• Austronesian peoples
• Bumiputera
• Demographics of Malaysia
• Kaamatan
• Unduk Ngadau
• Sumazau
• Coastal Kadazan dialect
• Dusun language
• Kirama Family of Sabah

• Tangit, Trixie M. (2005). Planning Kadazandusun (Sabah, Malaysia): Labels, Identity, and Language (MA thesis). University of Hawaii at Manoa. hdl:10125/11691.

• KDCA Official Website
• Kadazandusun Forum
• Kadazandusun Murut Vocabulary/ Words /nouns collections
• Robert Blust's audio recordings of Tindal Dusun are archived with Kaipuleohone