List of languages by time of extinction
Language Endangerment Status | |
---|---|
Extinct (EX) | |
| |
Endangered | |
Safe | |
| |
Other categories | |
Related topics | |
![]() UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger categories | |
An extinct language may be narrowly defined as a language with no native speakers and no descendant languages. Under this definition, a language becomes extinct upon the death of its last native speaker, the terminal speaker. A language like Latin is not extinct in this sense, because it evolved into the modern Romance languages; it is impossible to state when Latin became extinct because there is a diachronic continuum (compare synchronic continuum) between ancestors Late Latin and Vulgar Latin on the one hand and descendants like Old French and Old Italian on the other; any cutoff date for distinguishing ancestor from descendant is arbitrary. For many languages which have become extinct in recent centuries, attestation of usage is datable in the historical record, and sometimes the terminal speaker is identifiable. In other cases, historians and historical linguists may infer an estimated date of extinction from other events in the history of the sprachraum.
List
[edit]21st century
[edit]20th century
[edit]Date | Language or dialect | Language family | Region | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
20th-21st century (?) | Ayabadhu | Pama-Nyungan | Queensland, Australia | [75] |
20th-21st century (?) | Aghu Tharnggala | Pama-Nyungan | Queensland, Australia | [75] |
20th-21st century (?) | Adithinngithigh | Pama-Nyungan | Queensland, Australia | |
20th-21st century (?) | Arritinngithigh | Pama-Nyungan | Queensland, Australia | |
20th-21st century (?) | Gurnai | Pama-Nyungan | Victoria, Australia | now being revived[75] |
20th-21st century | Southern Kayapó | Macro-Jê | Mato Grosso, Brazil | Hypothesized to be the ancestor of Panará. |
late 20th century (?) | Nganyaywana | Pama-Nyungan | Australia | |
late 20th century (?) | Ngamini | Pama-Nyungan | South Australia | |
late 20th century (?) | Nila | Austronesian | Nila Island, Indonesia | Speakers were relocated to Seram due to volcanic activity on Nila[76] |
late 20th century (?) | Serua | Austronesian | Mount Serua, Indonesia | Speakers were relocated to Seram due to volcanic activity on Serua[76] |
late 20th century | Newfoundland Irish | Celtic | Newfoundland, Canada | [77] |
late 20th century | Soyot | Turkic | Buryatia, Khövsgöl Province | Partly revitalized |
late 20th century | Saraveca | Arawakan | Eastern lowlands Bolivia | |
From 1980 to 2000 | Tepecano | Uto-Aztecan | Central Mexico | Last known speaker Lino de la Rosa was alive in 1980 |
c. 2000 | Mesmes | Semitic | Ethiopia | with the death of Abegaz[78][79] |
c. 2000 | Kamarian | Austronesian | west Seram Island, Indonesia | |
2000 | Sowa | Malayo-Polynesian | Pentecost Island, Vanuatu | with the death of Maurice Tabi[80] |
late 1990s | Munichi | unclassified | Loreto Region, Peru | with the death of Victoria Huancho Icahuate |
1999 | Nyulnyul | Pama-Nyungan | Australia | with the death of Carmel Charles[81] |
by 1999 | Ineseño | Chumashan | California, United States | [82] |
1998 | Yola | Germanic | County Wexford, Ireland | |
1998 | Mlahsô | Semitic | Syria; Turkey | with the death of Ibrahim Hanna[83] |
by 1998 | Skepi Creole Dutch | Dutch-based creole | Guyana | [84] |
after or in 1997 | Aribwatsa | Lower Markham languages | Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea | Exact date of extinction is unknown although it's believed to be in 2000. Most descendants have switched to the Bukawa language. |
1997-98 | Ngarnka | Pama-Nyungan | Australia | |
January 1997 | Sireniki Yupik | Eskimo–Aleut | Chukotka Peninsula, Russia | with the death of Valentina Wye[85] |
1997 | Guazacapán | Xincan | Santa Rosa, Guatemala | |
1997 | Jumaytepeque | Xincan | By Volcán Jumaytepeque, Guatemala | |
ca. 1996 (?) | Malaryan | Dravidian | Kerala and Tamil Nadu, India | [86] |
16 December 1996 | Iowa-Oto | Siouan | Oklahoma and Kansas, United States | with the death of Truman Washington Dailey[87] |
1996 | Chiquimulilla | Xincan | Chiquimulilla, Guatemala | The last semi-speaker Julian de la Cruz died in 1996. |
by 1996 | Katabaga | Malayo-Polynesian | Philippines | [88] |
by 1996 | Palumata | Austronesian | Maluku, Indonesia | [89] |
before 1996 | Seru | Malayo-Polynesian | Sarawak, Malaysia | [90] |
5 November 1995 | Kasabe | Niger–Congo | Cameroon | with the death of Bogon[91] |
6 August 1995 | Martuthunira | Pama-Nyungan | Western Australia | with the death of Algy Paterson[92] |
8 January 1995 | Northern Pomo | Pomoan (Hokan?) | California, United States | with the death of Edna Campbell Guerrero |
16 May 1994 | Luiseño language | Uto-Aztecan | Southern California | with the death of Villiana Calac Hyde. A revitalization process is happening. |
30 April 1994 | Sakhalin Ainu | Ainu languages | Japan | with the death of Take Asai[93] |
13 July 1993 | Eastern Abnaki | Algic > Algonquian | Maine, United States | with the death of Madeline Shay[94][95] |
1993 | Andoa | Zaparoan | Peru | [96] |
7 October 1992 | Ubykh | Northwest Caucasian | Balıkesir Province, Turkey | with the death of Tevfik Esenç[97] |
23 February 1991 | Roncalese (Erronkariko) dialect | Basque (language isolate) | Spain | with the death of Fidela Bernat[98] |
1991 | Pánobo | Panoan | Peru | [99] |
1991 | Ullatan | Dravidian | India | [100] |
30 July 1990 | Wappo | Yuki–Wappo | California, United States | with the death of Laura Fish Somersal[101] |
1990 | Shasta | Shastan | California, United States | |
Early 1990’s | Hermit | Malayo-Polynesian | Manus Province, Papua New Guinea | It has been mostly replaced by Seimat. |
ca. 1990s | Lumaete dialect of Kayeli | Malayo-Polynesian | central Maluku, Indonesia | [102] |
ca. 1990s | Taman variety of Sak | Sino-Tibetan | Myanmar | [103] |
1990s | Unggumi | Worrorra | Australia | with the death of Morndi Munro[104] |
1990s? | Berti | Nilo-Saharan | Dafur and Kordofan, Sudan | |
20 September 1989 | Kamassian | Uralic > Samoyedic | Sayan Mountains, Soviet Union | with the death of Klavdiya Plotnikova |
March 1989 | Leliali dialect of Kayeli | Malayo-Polynesian | central Maluku, Indonesia | [102][105] |
ca. 1989 | Hukumina | Austronesian | Maluku, Indonesia | [106] |
1989 | Miami-Illinois | Algic > Algonquian | along the Mississippi River, United States | |
1989 | Kungarakany | Gunwinyguan | Northern Territory, Australia | with the death of Madeline England[105][107] |
16 September 1988 | Atsugewi | Palaihnihan | California, United States | with the death of Medie Webster[108] |
1988 | ǁXegwi | Tuu | South Africa | with the death of Jopi Mabinda[109] |
ca. 1987 | Bidyara | Pama-Nyungan | Queensland, Australia | [110] |
ca. 1987 | Laua | Trans-New Guinea | Papua New Guinea | |
4 February 1987 | Cupeño | Uto-Aztecan | California, United States | with the death of Roscinda Nolasquez[111] |
1987 | Dyangadi | Pama-Nyungan | New South Wales, Australia | [112] |
1987 | Negerhollands | Dutch-based creole | U.S. Virgin Islands | with the death of Alice Stevens |
by 1987 | Basa-Gumna | Niger-Congo > Benue-Congo | Niger State/Plateau State, Nigeria | [113] |
by 1987 | Yugambal | Pama-Nyungan | Queensland, Australia | [114] |
ca. 1986 | Bikya | Niger-Congo > Benue-Congo | Cameroon | |
ca. 1986 | Bishuo | Niger-Congo > Benue-Congo | Cameroon | |
April 1986 | Jiwarli dialect, Mantharta | Pama-Nyungan | Australia | with the death of Jack Butler[115] |
1986 | Mangala | Pama-Nyungan | Western Australia | [116] |
1986 | Volow | Austronesian | Vanuatu | with the death of Wanhan[117] |
late 1980s to early 1990s | Cahuarano | Zaparoan | Along the Nanay River in Peru. | |
18 March 1984 | Deeside dialect, Scottish Gaelic | Celtic | Scotland | with the death of Jean Bain[118] |
1984 | Yavitero | Arawakan | Venezuela | [105][119] |
February 1983 | Antrim Irish | Celtic | Ireland | with the death of Séamus Bhriain Mac Amhlaig[120][121] |
ca. 1983 | Yangman | Australian | Northern Territory, Australia | [122] |
June 1982 | Kansa | Siouan | Oklahoma, United States | with the death of Ralph Pepper |
1982 | Dagoman | Australian | Northern Territory, Australia | with the death of Martha Hart[123] |
by 1982 | Dyugun | Australian | Western Australia | [124] |
by 1982 | Kato | Na-Dene > Athabaskan | California, United States | [125] |
after 1981 | Dirari | Pama-Nyungan | South Australia | [126] |
after 1981 | Dyaberdyaber | Pama-Nyungan | Western Australia | [127][128] |
after 1981 | Erre | Australian | Northern Territory, Australia | [129] |
after 1981 | Umbugarla | Arnhem Land languages or Darwin Region languages | Northern Territory, Australia | with the death of Butcher Knight |
after 1981 | Yawarawarga | Pama-Nyungan | Queensland and South Australia | [130] |
ca. 1981 | Ternateño | Portuguese Creole | Maluku, Indonesia | [131] |
1 May 1981 | Pitta Pitta | Pama-Nyungan | Queensland, Australia | with the deaths of Ivy Nardoo of Boulia[132] |
1981 | Warrungu | Pama-Nyungan | Queensland, Australia | with the death of Alf Palmer[133][134] |
by 1981 | Bina | Austronesian | Central Province (Papua New Guinea) | |
1980 | Twana | Salishan | Washington, United States | [105][135] |
1980 | Yalarnnga | Pama-Nyungan | Australia | |
late 1970s - 1980s[128] | Flinders Island | Pama-Nyungan | Australia | last known speaker was Johnny Flinders[133] |
between 1971 and 1981 | Kwadi | Khoe | southwestern Angola | [136] |
1970s – 1980s | Chicomuceltec | Mayan | Mexico; Guatemala | |
22 February 1979 | Barranbinja | Pama-Nyungan | New South Wales, Australia | with the death of Emily Margaret Horneville |
3 November 1977 | Shuadit | Romance | southern France | with the death of Armand Lunel[105][137] |
24 August 1977 | Ngawun | Pama-Nyungan | Queensland, Australia | with the death of Cherry O'Keefe[138] |
13 July 1977 | Nooksack | Salishan | Washington, United States | with the death of Sindick Jimmy[105] |
ca. 1977 | Arran Gaelic | Celtic | Isle of Arran | With the death of Donald Craig.[139] |
ca. 1977 | Nagumi | Niger-Congo > Benue-Congo | Cameroon | [140] |
between 1976 and 1999 | Kw'adza | Cushitic | Tanzania | [141] |
after 1976 | Muskum | Chadic | western Chad | [142] |
1975 | Yugh | Yeniseian | central Siberia, Soviet Union | [105][143] |
before 1975 | Homa | Bantu | southern Sudan | [144] |
27 December 1974 | Manx | Celtic | Isle of Man, British islands | with the death of Ned Maddrell. Now being revived as a second language[145] |
28 May 1974 | Ona | Chon | Tierra del Fuego, Argentina | with the death of Ángela Loij[notes 4] |
1974 | Moksela | Malayo-Polynesian | Maluku, Indonesia | [146] |
before 1974 | Cacaopera | Misumalpan | El Salvador | [147] |
after 1973 | Môa Remo | Panoan | Along the Môa River of Amazonas, Peru | A word list was created in 1973. |
By 1974 | Dicamay Agta | Malayo-Polynesian | Luzon, Philippines | The Dicamay Agta were killed by Ilokano homesteaders sometime between 1957 and 1974. |
9 October 1972 | Tillamook | Salishan | Oregon, United States | with the death of Minnie Scovell[105] |
5 February 1972 | Hanis | Penutian | Oregon, United States | with the death of Martha Harney Johnson[148] |
1972 | Mbabaram | Pama-Nyungan | Queensland, Australia | with the death of Albert Bennett[149] |
after 1968 | Paratio | Xukuruan | Pesqueira, Pernambuco, Brazil | It was spoken by a few people in Pesqueira in 1968. Loukotka (1968) |
1968 | Welsh-Romani | Romani | Wales, United Kingdom | with the death of Manfri Wood[150] |
before 1968 | Sened | Berber | Tunisia | |
after 1965 | Barngarla | Pama-Nyungan | southern Australia | with the death of Moonie Davis[151] |
24 July 1965 | Barbareño | Chumashan | California, United States | with the death of Mary Yee[152][notes 5] |
1965 | Wakawaka | Pama-Nyungan | Queensland, Australia | [153] |
ca. 1964 | Aariya | spurious | India | [154] |
10 August 1963 | Galice | Na-Dene > Athabaskan | Oregon, United States | with the death of Hoxie Simmons |
10 January 1963 | Upper Umpqua | Na-Dene > Athabaskan | Oregon, United States | with the death of Wolverton Orton |
1963 | Jorá | Tupi | Bolivia | [105] |
after 1962 | Xukuru | Xukuruan | Pernambuco and Paraíba, Brazil | Known from a wordlist and sketch from Geraldo Lapenda (1962). |
1962 | Wiyot | Algic | California, United States | with the death of Delia Prince[155] |
after 1961 | Wyandot | Iroquoian | Oklahoma, United States; Quebec, Canada | |
after 1961 | Pankararú | unclassified | Pernambuco, Alagoas, Brazil | Only two people remembered the language in 1961. |
after 1961 | Xocó | unclassified | Sergipe, Alagoas, Brazil | Only a few people remembered the language in 1961 It is not clear if this is a single language. |
1961 | Northeastern Pomo | Pomoan(Hokan?) | California, United States | |
1960 | Oriel dialect, Irish | Celtic | Ireland | with the death of Annie O'Hanlon[156][157] |
1960 | Siuslaw | Penutian | Oregon, United States | with the death of Mary Barrett Elliott. Last speaker of Lower Umpqua dialect was Billy Dick[148] |
1960s | Cuitlatec | isolate | Guerrero, Mexico | with the death of Juana Can.[158] |
1960s | Luren | Sino-Tibetan | Guizhou | |
1960s | Pirlatapa | Pama-Nyungan | South Australia | [159] |
1960s | Timor Pidgin | Portuguese creole | East Timor | [160] |
16 April 1959 | Catawba | Siouan | South Carolina, United States | with the death of Chief Sam Blue[161] |
22 September 1958 | Molala | Penutian | Oregon, United States | with the death of Fred Yelkes[148] |
1958 | Salinan | isolate (Hokan?) | California, United States | |
1958 | Omurano | Zaparoan | Peru | [105][162] |
25 March 1957 | Natchez | isolate | Mississippi, United States | [163] with the death of Nancy Raven.[164] The Natchez people are attempting to revive this language.[165] |
1952-1956 | Aasáx | Cushitic | Tanzania | [166] |
after 1955 | Wotapuri-Katarqalai | Indo-Aryan | Afghanistan | [167] |
after 1954 | Tây Bồi | French-based Pidgin | Vietnam | [168][169] |
1954 | Central Kalapuya | Kalapuyan | Oregon, United States | with the death of John B. Hudson[148] |
1954 | Ifo | Malayo-Polynesian | Erromanga Island, Vanuatu | with the death of James Nalig[170] |
1952 | Martha's Vineyard Sign Language | Sign language | Massachusetts, United States | with the death of Katie West |
1951 | Alsea | Penutian | Oregon, United States | with the death of John Albert[148] |
ca. 1950 | Bohemian Romani | mixed language | Czechoslovakia, Central Europe | after World War II, due to extermination of most of its speakers in Nazi concentration camps. |
1950 | Kaniet | Malayo-Polynesian | Manus Province, Papua New Guinea | [105][171] |
ca. 1950s | Pijao | unclassified | Tolima Department, Colombia | [172] |
1950s | Kepkiriwát | Tupian | Rondônia, Brazil | |
mid-20th century | Ventureño | Chumashan | California, United States | |
mid-20th century | Kawishana | Arawakan | Brazil | presumably extinct |
mid-20th century | Basay | Austronesian | Taiwan | |
mid-20th century | Sidi | Bantu | Bantu | Kathiawar, India; also known as Habsi. |
mid-20th century | Slovincian | Slavic | Pomerania, Poland | |
mid-20th century | Southern Pame | Oto-Manguean | Southern Mexico | |
mid-20th century | Kipea | Macro-Gê | Eastern Brazil | |
mid-20th century | Dzubukua | Macro-Gê | Pernambuco, Brazil | |
mid-20th century | Tequiraca | Tequiraca–Canichana? | Loreto, Peru | |
around mid-20th century | Tubar | Uto-Aztecan | Northern Mexico | |
around mid-20th century? | Chico | Maiduan | Central California | |
after 1949 | Kunza | unclassified | Atacama Desert, Chile/Peru | |
after 1949 | Mikira | Cahuapanan | Loreto, Peru | A word list was made by Enrique Stanko Vráz in 1949. |
6 December 1948 | Tunica | isolate | Louisiana, United States | with the death of Sesostrie Youchigant[173] |
after 1947 | Gafat | Semitic | along the Abbay River, Ethiopia | [174] |
3 March 1940 | Pentlatch | Salishan | Vancouver Island, Canada | with the death of Joe Nimnim[105] |
28 January 1940 | Chitimacha | isolate | Louisiana, United States | with the death of Delphine Ducloux[175] |
ca. 1940 | Eudeve | Uto-Aztecan | Sonora, Mexico | |
ca. 1940s | Chemakum | Chimakuan | Washington, United States | |
ca. 1940s | Ossory dialect of Irish | Celtic | County Kilkenny, Ireland | |
ca. 1940s | Kitanemuk | Uto-Aztecan | California, United States | with the deaths of Marcelino Rivera, Isabella Gonzales, and Refugia Duran |
22 May 1939 | Rumsen | Penutian | California, United States | with the death of Isabel Meadows[176] |
9 May 1939 | Miluk | Penutian | Oregon, United States | with the death of Annie Miner Peterson[177] |
by or after 1939 | Judaeo-Piedmontese | Romance | Northwestern Italy | |
16 January 1937 | Northern Kalapuya | Kalapuyan | Oregon, United States | with the death of Louis Kenoyer |
1937 | Yoncalla | Kalapuyan | Oregon, United States | with the death of Laura Blackery Albertson[178] |
1936 | Narungga | Pama-Nyungan | South Australia, Australia | [179] |
8 January 1935 | Biloxi | Siouan | Louisiana, United States | with the death of Emma Jackson[180] |
1934 | Juaneño | Uto-Aztecan | California, United States | |
1934 | Puelche | Chon | Argentina | with the death of Trruúlmani |
1934 | Takelma | isolate | Oregon, United States | with the death of Frances Johnson[181] |
1933 | Gabrielino | Uto-Aztecan | California, United States | |
between 1931 and 1951 | Akar-Bale | Andamanese | Andaman Islands, India | [182] |
between 1931 and 1951 | Aka-Kede | Andamanese | Andaman Islands, India | [182] |
between 1931 and 1951 | A-Pucikwar | Andamanese | Andaman Islands, India | [182] |
after 1931 | Tonkawa | isolate | Oklahoma/Texas/New Mexico, United States | |
after 1931 | Jaquirana Remo | Panoan | Amazonas, Brazil | A word list was made in 1931. |
after 1931 | Tuxinawa | Panoan | Acre, Brazil | A word list was made in 1931. |
by 1931 | Aka-Bea | Andamanese | Andaman Islands, India | [182] |
by 1931 | Oko-Juwoi | Andamanese | Andaman Islands, India | [182] |
after 1930 | Sensi | Panoan | right bank of Ucayali River, Peru | A word list was created by Günter Tessmann in 1930. |
c. 1930 | Mattole | Na-Dene > Athabaskan | California, United States | |
29 January 1930 | Mutsun | Penutian | California, United States | with the death of Ascencion Solorsano |
c. 1930s | Cayuse | isolate/unclassified | Oregon, United States | |
c. 1930s | Kathlamet | Penutian | Washington/Oregon, United States | with the death of Charles Cultee[148] |
c. 1930s | Lower Chinook | Penutian | Washington/Oregon, United States | |
c. 1930s | Mahican | Algic > Algonquian | New York, United States | |
c. 1930s | Clackamas dialect of Upper Chinook | Penutian | Washington/Oregon, United States | |
c. 1930s | Kitsai | Caddoan | Oklahoma, United States | with the death of Kai Kai[183] |
c. 1930s | Tapachultec | Mixe–Zoque | Southern Mexico | |
before 1930s | Kwalhioqua | Na-Dene > Athabaskan | Washington, United States | |
by 1930 | Opata | Uto-Aztecan | Northern Mexico | |
between 1920 and 1940 | Ajawa | Chadic | Bauchi State, Nigeria | [184] |
25 December 1929 | Kaurna | Pama-Nyungan | South Australia | with the death of Ivaritji,[185] now being revived |
c. 1929 | Bear River | Na-Dene > Athabaskan | California, US | |
1928 | Ottoman Turkish | Turkic | Turkey | Evolved into Turkish in 1928. |
after 1927 | Tarauacá Kashinawa | Panoan | Amazonas, Brazil | A word list was made in 1927. |
after 1927 | Blanco River Remo | Panoan | Loreto Province, Peru | A word list was made in 1927. |
after 1925 | Subtiaba | Oto-Manguean or Subtiaba-Tlapanec | Nicaragua | |
1925 AD | Vanji | Iranian | Emirate of Bukhara | [186] |
January 1922 | Chimariko | isolate | California, United States | with the death of Sally Noble[187][188] |
after 1921 | Chagatai | Turkic | Central Asia including Turkmenistan | Chagtai is still studied in Uzbekistan and Turkey.[189] |
30 June 1921 | Tataviam | Uto-Aztecan | California, United States | with the death of Juan José Fustero |
by 1921 | Aka-Kol | Andamanese | Andaman Islands, India | [190] |
After 1920 | Sinacantán | Xincan | Santa Rosa, Guatemala | A word list was created by Walther Lehmann in 1920. |
ca. 1920 | Mochica | Chimuan | northwest Peru | |
ca. 1920s | Fergana Kipchak | Turkic | Fergana Valley | [191] |
ca. 1920s | Chochenyo | Penutian | California, United States | |
ca. 1920s | Island Carib | Cariban | Lesser Antilles, Caribbean Sea | An offshoot survives as Garifuna. |
around the 1920s | Otuke | Macro-Jê | Mato Grosso, Santa Cruz | |
by 1920 | Yupiltepeque | Xincan | Guatemala | [192] |
after 1917 | Pochutec | Uto-Aztecan | Oaxaca, Mexico | |
15 June 1917 | Obispeño | Chumashan | Southern California, United States | with the death of Rosario Cooper[193] |
25 March 1916 | Yahi | isolate (Hokan?) | California, United States | with the death of Ishi[194][notes 6] |
1915 | Yamhill dialect of Northern Kalapuya | Kalapuyan | Oregon, United States | |
1910s | ǀXam | Tuu | South Africa | |
after 1908 | Siraya | Austronesian | southwestern Taiwan | [195] |
18 July 1908 | Mohegan-Pequot | Algic > Algonquian | southern New England, United States | with the death of Fidelia Fielding[196] |
24 February 1905 | Tasmanian | unclassified | Tasmania, Australia | with the death of Fanny Cochrane Smith[197][198][notes 7] |
after 1906 | Arazaire | Panoan | Cusco Province, Peru | A word list was done in 1906. |
after 1904 | Atsawaka | Panoan | Puno Province, Peru | There were 20 speakers in 1904. |
after 1902 | Dyirringany | Pama–Nyungan | New South Wales, Australia | |
between 1900 and 1920 | Chinese Kyakala | Tungusic | Northeastern China | [199] |
between 1900 and 1920 | Jangil | Ongan | Andaman Islands, India | [200] |
ca. 1900 | Henniker Sign Language | Village sign | New Hampshire, United States | |
ca. 1900 | Tongva language | Uto-Aztecan | Southern California, United States | A revitalization process is happening. |
ca. 1900 | Payagua language | Mataco–Guaicuru? | Alto Paraguay, Paraguay | |
ca. 1900 | Moran | Sino-Tibetan | Assam, India | [201] |
1900 | Wulguru | Pama-Nyungan | Australia | |
by 1900 | Classical Mandaic | Semitic | Iran; Iraq | [202] |
by 1900 | Piro Pueblo | Tanoan | New Mexico, United States | |
1900s AD | Iazychie | Indo-European | Halychyna, Bukovina, Zakarpattia | [203] |
early 20th century | Atakapa | isolate | Louisiana/Texas, United States | |
early 20th century | Kamakã | Macro-Jê | Bahia, Brazil | |
early 20th century | Jersey Dutch | Dutch-based creole | New Jersey, United States | |
early 20th century | Kazukuru | Malayo-Polynesian | New Georgia, Solomon Islands | |
early 20th century | Kyakhta Russian–Chinese Pidgin | Chinese/Russian-based contact language | ||
early 20th century | Chaná | Charruan | Uruguay | |
early 20th century | Marawán | Arawakan | Brazil | |
early 20th century | East Leinster dialect, Irish | Celtic | Ireland | [204] |
early 20th century | Ingain | Macro-Jê | Santa Catarina, Brazil |
19th century
[edit]18th century
[edit]Date | Language | Language family | Region | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
late 18th century | Esuma | Kwa | southern Côte d'Ivoire | [230] |
late 18th century | Maipure | Arawakan | Upper Orinoco region | |
late 18th century | Ruthenian | Slavic | Eastern Slavic regions of Poland-Lithuania | Evolved into Belarusian, Ukrainian and Rusyn. |
after the late 1790s | Chiriba | Panoan | Moxos Province, Bolivia | All that was recorded of it was a list of seven words in the late 1790s. |
after 1794 | Magiana | Arawakan | Bolivia | Magiana, an extinct Bolivia-Parana Arawakan language of Bolivia attested only with the wordlist in Palau, Mercedes and Blanca Saiz 1989 [1794]. |
after 1791 | Eora | Pama-Nyungan | Queensland and New South Wales, Australia | [231] |
after 1791 | Quiripi | Algic > Algonquian | Connecticut/New York/New Jersey, United States | [232] |
ca. 1790s | Powhatan | Algic > Algonquian | eastern Virginia, United States | |
ca. 1790s | Ramanos | Unclassified | Moxos Province, Bolivia | |
after 1788 | Gundungurra | Pama-Nyungan | New South Wales, Australia | [233] |
after 1788 | Otomaco | Otomakoan | Venezuelan Llanos | Known from a wordlist by Father Gerónimo José de Luzena written in December of 1788. |
after 1788 | Taparita | Otomakoan | Venezuelan Llanos | Known from a wordlist by Father Gerónimo José de Luzena written in December of 1788. |
after 1788 | Ngunnawal | Pama-Nyungan | New South Wales, Australia | [233] |
after 1788 | Thurawal | Pama-Nyungan | New South Wales, Australia | [233] |
26 December 1777 | Cornish | Celtic | Cornwall, England | with the death of Dolly Pentreath[234][notes 10] |
after 1770 | Weyto | unclassified | Ethiopia | |
after 1770 | Tamanaku | Cariban languages | Venezuela | |
1770 | Cuman | Turkic | north of Black Sea; Hungary | with the death of István Varró[235] |
ca. 1770s | Abipón | Mataco–Guaicuru | Argentina | |
after 1763 | Susquehannock | Iroquoian | Northeastern United States | After the Conestoga massacre. |
1760 | Galwegian dialect, Scottish Gaelic | Celtic | Scotland, United Kingdom | with the death of Margaret McMurray |
3 October 1756 | Polabian | Slavic | around the Elbe river, Poland/Germany | with the death of Emerentz Schultze[236] |
ca. 1730s | Arin | Yeniseian | central Siberia, Russia | [143] |
18th Century | Ajem-Turkic | Turkic | Iran, Eastern Anatolia, the South Caucasus and Dagestan | Evolved into Azerbaijani. |
18th century | Chané | Arawakan | Argentina | a dialect of Terêna |
18th century | Chibcha | Chibchan | Colombia | |
18th century | Classical Gaelic | Celtic | Ireland and Scotland, United Kingdom | The literary language. Fell out of use with the collapse of Gaelic society.[237] |
18th century | Coahuilteco | isolate/unclassified | Mexico; Texas, United States | |
18th century | Loup | Algic > Algonquian | Massachusetts and Connecticut, United States | |
18th century | Manao | Arawakan | Brazil | |
18th Century | Plateau Sign Language | Contact pidgin | Columbia Plateau, United States | |
18th century or earlier | Chuvan | Yukaghir | Chuvan was spoken in Anadyr (river) basin of Chukotka in Russia. | |
18th century or earlier | Omok | Yukaghir | Omok was spoken in Sakha and Magadan in Russia. | |
early 18th century | Apalachee | Muskogean | Florida, United States | |
early 18th century | Old Prussian | Baltic | Poland |
17th century
[edit]16th century
[edit]15th century
[edit]Date | Language | Language family | Region | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
After 1492 | Judaeo-Aragonese | Romance | North Central Spain | After the Alhambra Decree |
After 1492 | Judaeo-Catalan | Romance | Eastern Spain | After the Alhambra Decree |
15th century AD | African Romance | Italic | Roman Africa | [251] |
15th century AD | Jassic | Iranian | Hungary | [252] |
15th century AD | Old Anatolian Turkish | Turkic | Anatolia | Emerged in Anatolia late 11th century, and developed into early Ottoman Turkish. |
15th century AD | Old Nubian | Eastern Sudanic | Nubia | [253] Evolved into Nobiin. |
end of 15th century | Mozarabic | Romance | Spain; Portugal | [254] |
late 15th century | Greenlandic Norse | Germanic | Greenland | |
late 15th century | Selonian | Baltic | Latvia; Lithuania |
14th century
[edit]Date | Language | Language family | Region | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
14th century | Bulgar | Turkic | Volga and Danube, Europe; Central Asia | By the 9th or 10th centuries on the Danube and by the 14th century in the Volga region. It may have ultimately given rise to the Chuvash language, which is most closely related to it. |
14th century | Old Uyghur | Turkic | Central Asia, East Asia| | |
14th century | Khorezmian Turkic | Turkic | Central Asia | Evolved into Chagatai. |
14th century | Galindian | Baltic | northern Poland; Russia | |
14th century | Zarphatic | Romance | northern France; west-central Germany | |
14th century | Galician-Portuguese | Romance | northwestern Spain, northern Portugal | Evolved into Galician, Portuguese, Eonavian and Fala. Some linguists argue that said languages could all still be considered modern varieties of Galician-Portuguese itself. |
13th century
[edit]Date | Language | Language family | Region | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
13th century | Karakhanid | Turkic | Central Asia | Evolved into Khorezmian Turkic. |
After 20 June 1244 | Khitan | Mongolic | Central Asia | with the death of Yelü Chucai[255][notes 11] |
13th century | Pyu | Sino-Tibetan | central Myanmar | |
13th century | Sicilian Arabic | Semitic | Emirate of Sicily | [256] Evolved into Maltese. |
11th and 12th centuries
[edit]Date | Language | Language family | Region | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
12th century | Pecheneg | Turkic | Eastern Europe | |
12th century | Khwarezmian | Iranian | Khwarazm | |
11th – 12th century | Cumbric | Celtic | England/Scotland, United Kingdom | |
11th – 12th century | Jewish Babylonian Aramaic | Semitic | Iraq | [257] |
between 1000 and 1300 AD | Khazar | Turkic | northern Caucasus; Central Asia | |
ca. 1000 AD | Lombardic | Germanic | central Europe; northern Italy | |
ca. 1000 AD | Merya | Uralic | Yaroslavl Oblast, Russia | |
ca. 1000 AD | Muromian | Uralic | Vladimir Oblast, Russia | |
ca. 1000 AD | Shauraseni Prakrit | Indo-Aryan | Medieval India | [258] |
ca. 1000 AD | Sogdian | Indo-European | Sogdia | [259] Evolved into Yaghnobi. |
11th century | Old Church Slavonic | Slavic | Eastern Europe | still used as a liturgical language |
10th century
[edit]Date | Language | Language family | Region | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
10th – 12th century | Syriac | Semitic | Turkey; Iraq; Syria | now only used as liturgical language[260] |
10th – 12th century | Samaritan Aramaic | Semitic | West Bank, Palestine; Israel | now only used as liturgical language[261] |
10th century | Himyaritic | Semitic | Yemen | |
10th century | Paishachi | Indo-Aryan | North India | [262] |
10th century | Saka | Iranian | Xinjiang, China | Evolved into Wakhi. |
10th century | Zhang-Zhung | Sino-Tibetan | western Tibet (Central Asia) |
9th century
[edit]Date | Language | Language family | Region | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
9th century or later | Pictish | Celtic | Scotland, United Kingdom | |
after 840 | Tocharian | Indo-European | Tarim Basin (Central Asia) | |
9th century | Gothic | Germanic | Spain; Portugal; Italy | With the exception of Crimean Gothic |
8th century
[edit]Date | Language | Language family | Region | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
8th century AD | Aghwan | Northeast Caucasian | Azerbaijan | [263] Evolved into Udi. |
8th century AD | British Latin | Italic | Roman Britain | [264] |
8th century AD | Orkhon Turkic | Turkic | Eastern Europe, Central Asia, Eastern Asia | Evolved into Old Uyghur. |
7th century
[edit]Date | Language | Language family | Region | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
after 620 AD | Rouran | Mongolic or isolate | Northern China and Mongolia | [265] |
ca. 600 | Avestan | Iranian | Iran | [266] |
7th century | Gaya | Unclassified | Korea | |
7th century | Baekje | Koreanic | Korea | may be more than one language. |
7th century | Buyeo | Puyŏ, possibly Koreanic | Manchuria | |
7th-10th century? | Goguryeo | Puyŏ, possibly Koreanic | Korea, China |
6th century
[edit]Date | Language | Language family | Region | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
6th century AD | Ancient Cappadocian | Indo-European | Anatolia | [267] |
6th century AD | Burgundian | Germanic | Kingdom of the Burgundians | [268] |
6th century AD | Dacian | Indo-European | Balkans | |
6th century AD | Gaulish | Celtic | Gaul: France, Belgium, Germany and elsewhere | |
6th century AD | Illyrian | Indo-European | western Balkans | disputed |
6th century AD | Sabaean | Semitic | Horn of Africa; Arabic Peninsula | |
6th century AD | Vandalic | Germanic | Spain; North Africa |
5th century
[edit]Date | Language | Language family | Region | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
5th – 6th century | Hadramautic | Semitic | Dhofar Mountains | |
before 6th century | Ligurian | unclassified, possibly Celtic or Indo-European | northwestern Italy; southeastern France | [269] |
after 453 | Hunnic | unclassified, possibly Oghuric | from the Eurasian steppe into Europe | |
ca. 400 AD | Egyptian | Afro-Asiatic | Ancient Egypt | [270] With the exception of Coptic. |
ca. 400 AD | Meroitic | unclassified, maybe Nilo-Saharan | Sudan | |
5th century | Alanic | Iranian | Alania and Iberia | [271] Evolved into Ossetian. |
5th century | Isaurian | Anatolian | Anatolia | |
5th century | Thracian | Indo-European | eastern and central Balkans | |
early 5th century | Punic | Semitic | North Africa |
4th century
[edit]Date | Language | Language family | Region | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
4th century AD | Hismaic | Semitic | Ḥismā Oasis | [272] |
4th century CE | Aquitanian | Language isolate | Novempopulania and Basque Country | Evolved into Basque. |
4th century CE | Galatian | Celtic | central Anatolia | |
4th century CE | Geʽez | Semitic | Ethiopia; Eritrea | still used as a liturgical language[273] |
4th century CE | Biblical Hebrew | Semitic | Israel | revived in the 1880s |
after 300 CE | Parthian | Iranian | Iran |
3rd century
[edit]Date | Language | Language family | Region | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
after 274 AD | Palmyrene Aramaic | Semitic | Palmyrene Empire | extended to the Western Roman Empire as far as Britannia[274] |
after 267 AD | Thamudic | Semitic | Kingdom of Thamud | [275] |
3rd century AD | Gandhari | Indo-European | Gandhara | [276] |
3rd century CE | Rhaetic | unclassified, maybe Tyrsenian | eastern Alps | |
3rd century CE | Safaitic | Semitic | Syria | [277] |
c. 200 CE | Qatabanian | Afro-Asiatic | Yemen |
2nd century
[edit]Date | Language | Language family | Region | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
after 2nd century CE | Noric | Celtic | Austria; Slovenia | |
after 2nd century CE | Pisidian | Anatolian | southwestern Anatolia | |
after 150 AD | Bactrian | Iranian | Afghanistan | |
150 AD | Marsian | Italic | Marsica | [278] |
ca. 100 AD | Armazic | Semitic | South Caucasus | [279] |
ca. 100 AD | Hasaitic | Semitic | Al-Ahsa Oasis | [280] |
ca. 100 CE | Akkadian | Semitic | Mesopotamia | [281] |
100 CE | Etruscan | Tyrsenian | central Italy | |
ca. 2nd century CE | Celtiberian | Celtic | central-eastern Spain | |
ca. 2nd century CE | Gallaecian | Celtic | northwestern Spain, northern Portugal | |
2nd century CE | Lusitanian | Indo-European | Portugal, southwestern Spain | |
ca. 2nd century CE | Sorothaptic | Indo-European | eastern Spain | |
2nd century CE | Phrygian | Indo-European | southeastern Bulgaria; Anatolia | [283] |
1st century
[edit]Date | Language | Language family | Region | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
50 BC | Cisalpine Gaulish | Celtic | Cisalpine Gaul | [284] |
1st – 2nd century CE | Paeonian | Indo-European | Macedonia; Greece; Bulgaria | |
1st – 2nd century CE | Iberian | unclassified | Spain; France | |
1st century CE | Liburnian | Indo-European | western Croatia | |
1st century CE | Median | Indo-European | Persia | [285] |
Approximately 100 CE | Oscan | Italic | southern Italy | |
1st century CE | Venetic | Indo-European | northeastern Italy |
1st century BCE
[edit]Date | Language | Language family | Region | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
1st century BCE | Elymian | unclassified | western Sicily | |
1st century BCE | Lycian | Anatolian | southwestern Anatolia | |
1st century BCE | Lydian | Anatolian | western Anatolia | |
1st century BCE | Messapian | Indo-European | Apulia, Italy | |
1st century BCE | Mysian | Anatolian | northwestern Anatolia | |
1st century BCE | Sabine | Italic | central Italy | |
1st century BCE | Sicanian | unclassified | central Sicily | |
1st century BCE | Sicel | Indo-European | eastern Sicily | |
1st century BCE | Umbrian | Italic | central Italy | |
early 1st millennium BCE | Eteocretan | isolate/unclassified | Crete, Greece | |
1st millennium BCE | Milyan | Anatolian | Anatolia |
2nd century BCE
[edit]Date | Language | Language family | Region | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
100 BCE | Vestinian | Italic | east-central Italy | [286] |
ca. 150 BCE | Faliscan | Italic | Tuscany/Latium, Italy | |
ca. 100 BCE | Minaean | Afro-Asiatic | Yemen | |
2nd century BCE | Phoenician | Afro-Asiatic | Canaan, North Africa, Cyprus, Iberia, Sicily, Malta and Sardinia |
3rd century BCE
[edit]Date | Language | Language family | Region | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
232 BC | Ashokan Prakrit | Indo-Aryan | South Asia | [287] |
ca. 3rd century BC | Aequian | Italic | Latium, east-central Italy | |
ca. 3rd century BC | Carian | Anatolian | southwestern Anatolia | |
ca. 3rd century BC | Elu | Indo-Aryan | Sri Lanka | [288] Evolved into Sinhala and Dhivehi. |
ca. 3rd century BC | Lucanian | Italic | Lucania | [289] |
ca. 3rd century BC | Sidetic | Anatolian | southwestern Anatolia | |
ca. 3rd century BC | Volscian | Italic | Italy; Latium | |
ca. 200 BC | Numidian | Afro-Asiatic | Numidia | [290] |
4th century BCE
[edit]Date | Language | Language family | Region | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
early 4th century BCE | Eteocypriot | isolate/unclassified | Cyprus | |
4th century BCE | Ancient Macedonian | Indo-European | northeastern Greece | |
ca. 300 BC | Marrucinian | Italic | Chieti | [291] |
ca. 300 BCE | Philistine | unclassified, maybe Indo-European | Israel; Lebanon | |
ca. 350 BCE | Elamite | isolate | Persia; southern Mesopotamia |
5th century BCE
[edit]Date | Language | Language family | Region | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
after 5th century BCE | Tartessian | unclassified | Spain | [292] |
5th century BCE | Ammonite | Semitic | northwestern Jordan | |
5th century BCE | Moabite | Semitic | northwestern Jordan | |
ca. 400 BCE | Lepontic | Celtic | northern Italy | |
second half of the 1st millennium BC | Dadanitic | Semitic | Lihyan | [293] |
6th century BCE
[edit]Date | Language | Language family | Region | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
second half of the 6th century BC | Taymanitic | Semitic | Tayma | [294] |
after 6th century BCE | Lemnian | Tyrsenian | Lemnos, Greece | [295] |
6th century BCE | Edomite | Semitic | southwestern Jordan | |
6th century BCE | Urartian | Hurro-Urartian | Armenia; Georgia; Iraq; Anatolia |
7th century BCE
[edit]Date | Language | Language family | Region | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
620-580 BC | Cimmerian | Iranian | North Caucasus and West Asia | [296] |
ca. 600 BC | Dumaitic | Semitic | Dumat al-Jandal | [297] |
ca. 600 BCE | Luwian | Anatolian | Anatolia; northern Syria |
8th century BCE
[edit]Date | Language | Language family | Region | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
after 800 BC | Kaskian | Unclassified | Northeastern Anatolia and Colchis | [298] |
2nd millennium BCE
[edit]Date | Language | Language family | Region | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
c. 2000-1800 BCE | Sumerian | isolate | Mesopotamia | used as a literary and liturgical language until about 100 CE[299] |
ca. 1900 BC | Harappan | Unclassified, possibly Dravidian | Indus River | [300] |
ca. 1500 BCE | Hattic | Unclassified, possibly Northwest Caucasian | Anatolia | |
ca. 1450 BCE | Minoan | unclassified | Crete | may have evolved into Eteocretan. |
ca. 1300 BCE | Palaic | Anatolian | northwest Anatolia | |
ca. 1200 BC | Mycenaean Greek | Hellenic | Mycenaean Greece and western Anatolia | [301] |
ca. 1200 BCE | Kalasmaic | Anatolian | Kalasma | [302] |
after 1170 BCE | Ugaritic | Semitic | Syria | following the destruction of Ugarit |
ca. 1100 BCE | Hittite | Anatolian | Anatolia | |
ca. 1100 BCE | Sutean | Afro-Asiatic | Northeast Syria | Spoken around 2100 BCE |
ca. 1050 BCE | Cypro-Minoan | unclassified | Cyprus | may have evolved into Eteocypriot. |
ca. 1000 BCE | Hurrian | Hurro-Urartian | Anatolia; Syria; Mesopotamia |
3rd millennium BCE
[edit]Date | Language | Language family | Region | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
3rd millennium BCE | Eblaite | Semitic | Syria | [303] |
Unknown date
[edit]See also
[edit]Notes
[edit]- ^ Last surviving native speaker; it is being taught as a second language on the Olympic Peninsula of Washington State.
- ^ Last surviving native speaker; some children still learn it as a second language.
- ^ Brother of Lenape traditionalist and language preservation activist Nora Thompson Dean
- ^ The last full-blooded Selknam Indian, but some have suggested certain people remained fluent in the languages until the 1980s.
- ^ Last attested speaker of a Chumashan language
- ^ Last member of the Yahi, the last surviving group of the Yana people who spoke Yana
- ^ Considered to be the last fluent speaker of a Tasmanian language.
- ^ Considered to be the last full-blood speaker of a Tasmanian language;[211] however, Fanny Cochrane Smith, who spoke one of the Tasmanian languages, outlived her.
- ^ Last full-blooded speaker, though partial knowledge of this language continued among mixed Cayuga-Tutelo descendants for some time.
- ^ Possibly the last fluent native speaker of the Cornish language, was monoglot until her twenties. See Last speaker of the Cornish language.
- ^ Last person known to speak, read, and write in Khitan.
References
[edit]- ^ "Last Fluent Speaker of Nxamxcin Language Dies at 96". The Spokesman. Spokane, Washington.
- ^ "Last Native Speaker Of Aleut Language In Russia Dies". RadioFreeEurope. 5 October 2022.
- ^ S.A.P, El Mercurio (16 February 2022). "Fallece a los 93 años Cristina Calderón, la última hablante del idioma Yagán | Emol.com". Emol (in Spanish). Retrieved 16 February 2022.
- ^ Seelye, Katharine Q. (6 October 2021). "Marie Wilcox, Who Saved Her Native Language From Extinction, Dies at 87". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 12 February 2022.
- ^ "'Race against time': Pandemic propels fight to save Native American languages". POLITICO. 13 April 2021. Retrieved 13 April 2021.
- ^ "Last Native Speaker Of Rare Dialect Dies In Russia". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. 9 March 2021. Retrieved 18 March 2021.
- ^ International, Survival (10 March 2021). "Aruká Juma, Last Man of His Tribe, Is Dead". NY Times. Retrieved 10 March 2021.
- ^ Anderson, Dale (11 December 2020). "Chief Kenneth Patterson, 93, leader in the Tuscarora Nation". The Buffalo News. Retrieved 19 March 2021.
- ^ International, Survival (1 June 2020). "The last speaker of the Sare language has died". Medium. Retrieved 28 June 2020.
- ^ "Preserving Indigenous languages". Monash Life. Monash University. 27 October 2019. Retrieved 12 August 2020.
- ^ "Cherry Wulumirr Daniels laid to rest". Yugul Mangi Development Aboriginal Corporation. 24 April 2019. Retrieved 12 August 2020.
- ^ Daigneault, Anna (6 November 2019). "Museums of the mind: Why we should preserve endangered languages". Global Voices. Retrieved 23 November 2019.
- ^ Domingo, Javier (30 January 2019). "La imborrable obra de Dora Manchado: ¿la última guardiana de la lengua tehuelche?". Infobae (in Spanish). Retrieved 23 November 2019.
- ^ Joe Skurzewski (10 December 2016). "Edwin Benson, last known fluent speaker of Mandan, passes away at 85". KFYR-TV. Archived from the original on 23 September 2023.
- ^ Daffron, Brian (6 October 2016). "Doris McLemore, Last Fluent Wichita Speaker, Walks On". Indian Country Media Network. Archived from the original on 4 August 2017. Retrieved 24 May 2017.
- ^ "A "Legend", Indigenous Australian Leader, Knowledge Holder Tommy George Passes On". Snowchange Cooperative. 29 July 2016. Retrieved 24 May 2017.
- ^ Jack Knox (19 March 2016). "Jack Knox — A silenced tongue: the last Nuchatlaht speaker dies". Times Colonist. Archived from the original on 5 August 2021.
- ^ Lacitis, Erik (8 February 2005). "Last few Whulshootseed speakers spread the word". Seattle Times. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 15 September 2012.
- ^ Sweet Dorman, Lois (21 June 2005). "Lost in translation: a connection to the sacred". Seattle Times. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 15 September 2012.
- ^ Kaminsky, Jonathan (7 February 2014). "Last native speaker of Klallam language dies in Washington state". Reuters. Archived from the original on 19 July 2023.
- ^ "Last native Klallam speaker dies in Port Angeles". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 8 February 2014.
- ^ Kakar, Hasan Kawun (2014). Government and Society in Afghanistan: The Reign of Amir 'Abd al-Rahman Khan (5 ed.). University of Texas Press. ISBN 9780292729001.
- ^ Charter, David. "Death of a language: last ever speaker of Livonian passes away aged 103". The Times.
- ^ Ernštreits, Valts (14 December 2011). "Lībiešu valodas situācija". Livones.net (in Latvian). Archived from the original on 2 February 2014.
- ^ Romney, Lee. (2013, February 6). Revival of nearly extinct Yurok language is a success story. The Los Angeles Times. Retrieved February 7, 2013
- ^ "Revival of nearly extinct Yurok language is a success story". Los Angeles Times. 6 February 2013. Retrieved 19 March 2021.
- ^ Obituary: Robert (Bobby) Hogg, engineer and last speaker of the Cromarty dialect The Scotsman. 15 October 2012.
- ^ Foden-Vencil, Kristian. "Last Fluent Speaker Of Oregon Tribal Language 'Kiksht' Dies". Oregon Public Broadcasting. Archived from the original on 10 October 2019. Retrieved 23 May 2017.
- ^ "Alaska Native Language Loses Last Fluent Speaker - Indian Country Media Network". indiancountrymedianetwork.com. Archived from the original on 8 June 2017. Retrieved 23 May 2017.
- ^ "ISO 639-3 Registration Authority Request for New Language Code Element in ISO 639-3" (PDF). ISO 639-3. 23 January 2012. Retrieved 29 October 2023.
- ^ Dimas, Dimas. "PUNAHNYA BAHASA KREOL PORTUGIS". LIPI (in Indonesian). Archived from the original on 8 August 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2020.
- ^ "Falecimento - 12/10/2011". Projeto de Documentação de Línguas Indígenas. Retrieved 21 February 2018.
- ^ "Another language faces sunset in dead centre". The Australian. ||
- ^ a b "An Indian language recently went extinct. Why were we not told about it?". write2kill.in - Select writings of Subir Ghosh. Archived from the original on 18 February 2013.
- ^ "Ancient Indian language dies out". 4 February 2010 – via news.bbc.co.uk.
- ^ Andamanese tribes, languages die, The Hindu
- ^ "Great Andamanese, Mixed". Ethnologue.
- ^ Dixon, R.M.W (10 December 2010). I Am a Linguist. BRILL. ISBN 978-9004192355.
- ^ "Ethnologue report for language code: zmu". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 8 March 2015.
- ^ "Ethnologue report for language code: avo". Archived from the original on 13 April 2015. Retrieved 9 April 2015.
- ^ "Ethnologue report for language code: ait". Archived from the original on 13 April 2015. Retrieved 9 April 2015.
- ^ "Ethnologue report for language code: kgm". Archived from the original on 13 April 2015. Retrieved 9 April 2015.
- ^ "Ethnologue report for language code: pth". Archived from the original on 6 January 2015. Retrieved 6 January 2015.
- ^ "Ethnologue report for language code: laz". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 21 April 2015.
- ^ "Ethnologue report for language code: ppu". archive.ethnologue.com. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 23 April 2015.
- ^ "Tübatulabal". Ethnologue. Retrieved 9 May 2018.
- ^ "The last of Nepal's Dura speakers". BBC News. 15 January 2008.
- ^ John McWhorter,"No Tears For Dead Tongues"[1], Forbes,2/21/2008 @ 6:00PM.
- ^ "The Phraselator II". The American Magazine. Archived from the original on 7 August 2013. Retrieved 12 May 2013.
- ^ Mithun 336
- ^ "Javindo". Ethnologue.
- ^ "Hpon". Ethnologue.
- ^ "Holy road: Speaker of Wasco language dead at 91 - Indian Country Media Network". indiancountrymedianetwork.com. Retrieved 24 May 2017.
- ^ "Ludzī kīļ : The Lutsi Language". lutsimaa.lv. Retrieved 25 December 2020.
- ^ Blench, Roger; Dendo, Mallam (14 November 2006). "The Afro-Asiatic Languages" (PDF). Retrieved 7 July 2024.
- ^ "Language Log".
- ^ "Berbice Dutch officially extinct". Radio Netherlands Worldwide. February 25, 2010. Retrieved February 22, 2015
- ^ "Ethnologue report for language code: bpt". Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 7 March 2015.
- ^ Fortescue, Michael (22 December 2011). Comparative Chukotko-Kamchatkan Dictionary. p. 1.
- ^ "Language dies with woman". London: Observer.guardian.co.uk. 26 September 2004. Retrieved 3 October 2012.
- ^ Jon Watts (22 September 2005). "Jon Watts, The forbidden tongue, The Guardian 23 September 2005". Guardian. London. Retrieved 3 October 2012.
- ^ "List of Adamawa languages - Roger Blench" (PDF). www.rogerblench.info. Retrieved 23 April 2015.
- ^ "Juicing and Blending Advice, Reviews, Guides and Recipes" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 April 2007. Retrieved 6 February 2014.
- ^ Rantala, Leif, Aleftina Sergina 2009. Áhkkila sápmelaččat. Oanehis muitalus sámejoavkku birra, man maŋimuš sámegielalaš olmmoš jámii 29.12.2003. Roavvenjárga.
- ^ Golla, Victor (2011). California Indian Languages. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-26667-4.
- ^ Juillerat, Lee (16 September 2003). "Tribal elder who helped preserve language dies". Herald and News. Retrieved 14 August 2020.
- ^ Haynes, Erin F. "Obstacles facing tribal language programs in Warm Springs, Klamath, and Grand Ronde" (PDF). Coyote Papers. 8: 87–102. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 July 2010. Retrieved 30 August 2012.
- ^ "Ethnologue report for language code: ilg". Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
- ^ "Ethnologue report for language code: aea". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 6 March 2015.
- ^ "Ethnologue report for language code: amz". Archived from the original on 9 March 2015.
- ^ "Ethnologue report for language code: umd". Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 8 March 2015.
- ^ Chambers, Steve. "The vanishing voice of the Lenape." Archived 4 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine Star-Ledger. 17 Nov 2002. Retrieved 8 Dec 2013.
- ^ Neidjie, Bill; Stephen Davis; Allan Fox (c. 1985). Kakadu man...Bill Neidjie. Foreword by Clyde Holding. Queanbeyan, N.S.W.: Mybrood. ISBN 978-0-9589458-0-6.
- ^ "Ethnologue report for language code: ama". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 21 April 2015.
- ^ a b c "Ethnologue report for Australia". Archived from the original on 14 May 2014. Retrieved 8 March 2015.
- ^ a b Taber, Mark (1993). "Toward a Better Understanding of the Indigenous Languages of Southwestern Maluku". Oceanic Linguistics. 32 (2): 389–441. doi:10.2307/3623199. JSTOR 3623199 – via JSTOR.
- ^ "Teagascóirí Gaeilge". Ireland Canada University Foundation.
- ^ Ahland, Michael Bryan. (2010). Language death in Mesmes. Dallas: SIL International and the University of Texas at Arlington.
- ^ Bustorf, Dirk. (2007). "Mäsmäs", in: Siegbert Uhlig (ed.): Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, vol. 3: D-Ha, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, p. 838-39.
- ^ Gray (2013), The Languages of Pentecost Island
- ^ Charles, Mary (1993). Winin - Why the Emu Cannot Fly. Broome, WA: Magabala Books. ISBN 978-1-875641-07-9.
- ^ "Ineseño". Ethnologue.
- ^ "Mlahsö". Ethnologue.
- ^ Scholastic Book of Lists (2003)
- ^ "Yupik, Sirenik". Ethnologue.
- ^ "Ethnologue report for language code: mjq". archive.ethnologue.com. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 7 June 2016.
- ^ "On the Ioway Otoe-Missouria Language". iowayotoelang.nativeweb.org.
- ^ "Ethnologue report for language code: KTQ". Archived from the original on 15 December 2001.
- ^ "Ethnologue report for language code: pmc". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 21 April 2015.
- ^ "Ethnologue report for language code: SZD". Archived from the original on 28 January 2002.
- ^ David Crystal (29 April 2002). Language Death. Cambridge University Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-521-01271-3.
- ^ Dench, Alan (1994). Martuthunira: A Language of the Pilbara Region of Western Australia. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
- ^ Piłsudski, Bronisław; Alfred F. Majewicz (2004). The Collected Works of Bronisław Piłsudski. Trends in Linguistics Series. Vol. 3. Walter de Gruyter. p. 600. ISBN 9783110176148. Retrieved 22 May 2012.
- ^ "Penobscot". Native Languages of the Americas. Retrieved 25 October 2011.
- ^ "Eastern Abnaki language". Ethnologue. Retrieved 25 October 2011.
- ^ “Dos lenguas que no quieren morir.” El Comercio. 22 Enero 2008. 13 Febrero 2008 [2] [permanent dead link].
- ^ E. F. K. Koerner (1 January 1998). First Person Singular III: Autobiographies by North American Scholars in the Language Sciences. John Benjamins Publishing. p. 33. ISBN 978-90-272-4576-2.
- ^ Artola, Koldo (2000). "Fidela Bernat anderea, euskal hiztun erronkariarra (eta II)" (PDF). Fontes Linguae Vasconum: Studia et Documenta (32): 487–512. doi:10.35462/flv85.7. Retrieved 21 February 2014.
- ^ "Panobo". Ethnologue.
- ^ "Ullatan". Ethnologue. Archived from the original on 8 February 2008. Retrieved 8 July 2024.
- ^ Thompson, Sandra A.; Park, Joseph Sung-Yul; Li, Charles N. (2006). A Reference Grammar of Wappo. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-09854-1.
- ^ a b "Kayeli". Ethnologue.
- ^ "Taman". Ethnologue. Archived from the original on 17 December 2011. Retrieved 13 June 2024.
Reportedly the last speaker of Taman died in the 1990s.
- ^ Munro, Morndi (1996). Emerarra: a man from Merarra. Broome: Magabala Books.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Haarmann, Harald. 2002. Lexikon der untergegangenen Sprachen. München: Beck; p. 188
- ^ "Ethnologue report for language code: huw". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 21 April 2015.
- ^ "Kungarakany". Ethnologue.
- ^ Hillinger, Charles (23 August 1988). "Indian Woman Is Last Word on Language of the Atsugewi". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 28 October 2012.
- ^ "--Xegwi". Ethnologue.
- ^ "Ethnologue report for language code: bym". Archived from the original on 26 February 2014. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
- ^ Brigandi, P. (2009). "Roscinda Nolasquez Remembered". The Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology. 9 (1): 3.
- ^ "Dyangadi". Retrieved 16 April 2015.
- ^ "Basa-Gumna". Ethnologue.
- ^ "Ethnologue 14 report for language code:YUB". Archived from the original on 11 April 2015. Retrieved 5 April 2015.
- ^ Arts Webmaster, School of Languages and Linguistics (16 August 2019). "School of Languages and Linguistics".
- ^ "Mangala". Ethnologue.
- ^ François, Alexandre (2012), "The dynamics of linguistic diversity: Egalitarian multilingualism and power imbalance among northern Vanuatu languages", International Journal of the Sociology of Language (214): 85–110, doi:10.1515/ijsl-2012-0022, S2CID 145208588
- ^ "Gaelic in the North East". University of Aberdeen. Retrieved 14 November 2019.
- ^ "Yavitero". Ethnologue.
- ^ "Language | Feis na nGleann". feisnangleann.com. Retrieved 24 May 2017.
- ^ "Lament For Seamus 'Bhriain' Mac Amhlaigh". Glens Of Antrim Historical Society. 12 February 2006. Retrieved 24 May 2017.
- ^ "Ethnologue report for language code: jng". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
- ^ "Endangered Languages Project - Dagoman". Endangered Languages. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
- ^ "Ethnologue report for language code: dyd". Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 7 March 2015.
- ^ "Ethnologue report for language code: ktw". Archived from the original on 12 April 2015. Retrieved 9 April 2015.
- ^ "Ethnologue 14 report for language code:DIT". Archived from the original on 11 April 2015. Retrieved 5 April 2015.
- ^ "Ethnologue report for language code: dyb". Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 6 March 2015.
- ^ a b "Ethnologue 14 report for Australia". Archived from the original on 10 April 2015. Retrieved 5 April 2015.
- ^ "Ethnologue 14 report for language code:ERR". Archived from the original on 10 April 2015. Retrieved 5 April 2015.
- ^ "Ethnologue 14 report for language code:YWW". Archived from the original on 10 April 2015. Retrieved 5 April 2015.
- ^ "Ethnologue report for language code: tmg". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 21 April 2015.
- ^ Barry J. Blake (1979). "Pitta-Pitta". In Robert M. W. Dixon & Barry J. Blake (ed.). Handbook of Australian Languages. Vol. 1. John Benjamins Publishing Company. pp. 183–242. ISBN 978-90-272-0512-4.
- ^ a b "Language revitalization: revival of Warrungu (Australia) and maintenance of Maori (New Zealand)". Archived from the original on 10 October 2018.
- ^ Arita, Eriko (17 January 2010). "Tokyo prof strives to rescue an Aboriginal language from oblivion". The Japan Times. Retrieved 14 November 2019.
- ^ "Twana". Ethnologue.
- ^ "Kwadi". Ethnologue.
- ^ "Shuadit". Ethnologue.
- ^ Breen, Gavan (1981). The Mayi languages of the Queensland Gulf Country. Canberra: AIAS. p. 13. ISBN 0-85575-124-X.
- ^ Broderick, George (2018). "The Arran Place-Name Survey: 1974–1975". The Journal of Scottish Name Studies. 12. University of Mannheim: 4. Retrieved 13 June 2024.
The reputedly last native speaker of Arran Gaelic, Donald Craig (1899–1977)...
- ^ "Ethnologue report for language code: ngv". archive.ethnologue.com. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 23 April 2015.
- ^ "Kw'adza". Ethnologue.
- ^ "Muskum". Ethnologue.
- ^ a b c d e Vajda, Edward J. Loanwords in Ket; in: Haspelmath, Martin & Uri Tadmor (eds.). Loanwords in the World's Languages: A Comparative Handbook, p. 471. (in press)
- ^ "Homa". Ethnologue.
- ^ "Manx". Ethnologue.
- ^ "Moksela". Ethnologue.
- ^ "Cacaopera". Ethnologue.
- ^ a b c d e f Wurm, Stephen A.; Mühlhäusler, Peter; Tryon, Darrell T. (1996). Atlas of Languages of Intercultural Communication in the Pacific, Asia, and ... - Google Books. Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 9783110134179.
- ^ Dixon, R. M. W.; Dixon, Robert Malcolm Ward (17 February 2011). Searching for Aboriginal Languages. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781108025041.
- ^ Kenrick, Donald (2010). The A to Z of the Gypsies (Romanies). Toronto: Scarecrow Press. p. 289. ISBN 9780810875616.
- ^ Rawlings, Alex. "The man bringing dead languages back to life". BBC Future. BBC. Retrieved 14 November 2019.
- ^ Ernestine Ygnacio-De Soto, illustrated by Mary Yee, The Sugar Bear Story (Paperback): Introduction.
- ^ "Wakawaka". Ethnologue.
- ^ "ISO 639-3 request" (PDF). Retrieved 19 August 2008.
- ^ Limerick, Patricia Nelson; Cowell, Andrew; Collinge, Sharon K. (2009). Remedies for a New West. University of Arizona Press. ISBN 9780816525997.
- ^ "Ardaghy school is making great strides - Independent.ie". Independent.ie. Retrieved 24 May 2017.
- ^ "Annie O Hanlon. The last native Irish speaker in Louth. She died in 1957. • r/IrishHistory". reddit. 21 August 2013. Retrieved 24 May 2017.
- ^ Escalante Hernández, Roberto (1962). El cuitlateco. México, D.F.: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia.
- ^ "Pirlatapa". Ethnologue.
- ^ "Ethnologue report for language code: tvy". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 21 April 2015.
- ^ "Catawba". Ethnologue.
- ^ "Omurano". Ethnologue.
- ^ "Natchez". Ethnologue.
- ^ Kimball, G. (2013). "The Woman Who Was a Fox: The Structure of a Natchez Oral Narrative". International Journal of American Linguistics. 79 (3): 421–437. doi:10.1086/670925. JSTOR 670925. S2CID 144512594.
- ^ Smith, Diane (15 June 2011). "University helps Native Americans save languages: Project aims to increase field linguists". Seattle Times Newspaper. Retrieved 2 June 2013.
- ^ "Media Services - United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization". Archived from the original on 11 November 2009. Retrieved 7 November 2018.
- ^ "Ethnologue report for language code: wsv". Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
- ^ "Tay Boi". Ethnologue.
- ^ Haarmann, Harald. 2002. Lexikon der untergegangenen Sprachen. München: Beck; p. 188.
- ^ "Ifo". Ethnologue.
- ^ "Kaniet". Ethnologue.
- ^ "Pijao". Ethnologue.
- ^ Tunica Texts, Mary R. Haas, 1950, University of California Press
- ^ Ullendorff, Edward. The Ethiopians: An Introduction to Country and People, Second Edition (London: Oxford University Press, 1965), p. 131.
- ^ Handbook of North American Indians, V. 14, Southeast. Government Printing Office. ISBN 9780160876165.
- ^ "Historic Monterey: Photo Gallery - Isabel Meadows". City of Monterey. 2009. Archived from the original on 5 February 2012. Retrieved 29 November 2011.
- ^ Seaburg, William R.; Pamela T. Amoss. Badger and Coyote were Neighbors: Melville Jacobs on Northwest Indian Myths and Tails. Oregon State University Press. pp. 6–26.
- ^ Marianne Mithun (7 June 2001). The Languages of Native North America. Cambridge University Press. pp. 431–. ISBN 978-0-521-29875-9. Retrieved 9 November 2012.
- ^ "Narungga". Ethnologue.
- ^ Einaudi 1976, pp. 1–3
- ^ Paris Achen (11 January 2008). "Pair breathe life into dead language". Mail Tribune. Retrieved 22 April 2012.
- ^ a b c d e George van Driem (2001), Languages of the Himalayas: An Ethnolinguistic Handbook of the Greater Himalayan Region : Containing an Introduction to the Symbiotic Theory of Language, BRILL, ISBN 90-04-12062-9,
... The Aka-Kol tribe of Middle Andaman became extinct by 1921. The Oko-Juwoi of Middle Andaman and the Aka-Bea of South Andaman and Rutland Island were extinct by 1931. The Akar-Bale of Ritchie's Archipelago, the Aka-Kede of Middle Andaman and the A-Pucikwar of South Andaman Island soon followed. By 1951, the census counted a total of only 23 Greater Andamanese and 10 Sentinelese. That means that just ten men, twelve women and one child remained of the Aka-Kora, Aka-Cari and Aka-Jeru tribes of Greater Andaman and only ten natives of North Sentinel Island ...
- ^ "Science: Last of the Kitsai." Time Magazine. 27 June 1932 (retrieved 3 May 2010)
- ^ "Ajawa". Ethnologue.
- ^ Amery, Rob; University of Adelaide, (issuing body.) (2016), Warraparna Kaurna! : reclaiming an Australian language (PDF), University of Adelaide Press, pp. 1, 17, ISBN 978-1-925261-24-0
- ^ Dagikhudo, Dagiev; Carole, Faucher (2018). Identity, History and Trans-Nationality in Central Asia.
Andreev explains that 100 years ago there was an ancient Vanji language used by people of Vanj valley. He then provides as example that in 1925, when travelling to Vanj Valley, him and his travel companion met an old man who told that, when he was 11 years old, he was speaking Vanji language. Unfortunately, the old man could remember only 20-30 words, but even then, he was not sure if they were all correct.
- ^ Luthin, Herbert (2002). Surviving through the Days. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-22270-0.
- ^ Kathryn Klar; Margaret Langdon; Shirley Silver (30 November 2011). American Indian and Indoeuropean Studies: Papers in Honor of Madison S. Beeler. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 14–. ISBN 978-3-11-080868-1.
- ^ "Ethnologue report for language code: chg". archive.ethnologue.com. Archived from the original on 23 April 2015. Retrieved 23 April 2015.
- ^ George van Driem (2001), Languages of the Himalayas: An Ethnolinguistic Handbook of the Greater Himalayan Region : Containing an Introduction to the Symbiotic Theory of Language, BRILL, ISBN 90-04-12062-9,
The Aka-Kol tribe of Middle Andaman became extinct by 1921.
- ^ "mutual-intelligibility-among-the-turkic.pdf" (PDF). Retrieved 8 April 2024.
This lect is the descendant of the Fergana Kipchak language that went extinct in the late 1920's.
- ^ Campbell 1997:166
- ^ Klar, Kathryn (Winter 1991). "Precious Beyond the Power of Money to Buy: John P. Harrington's Fieldwork with Rosario Cooper". Anthropological Linguistics. 33 (4): 379–391. JSTOR 30028218.
- ^ Parkvall, Mikael. 2006. Limits of Language, London: Battlebridge; p. 51.
- ^ "Siraya". Ethnologue.
- ^ Fawcett, Melissa Jayne. Medicine Trail: The Life and Lessons of Gladys Tantaquidgeon
- ^ "Smith, Fanny Cochrane (1834–1905)". Fanny Cochrane Smith. Australian Dictionary of Biography. Retrieved 30 June 2010.
- ^ "Fanny Cochrane Smith". Archived from the original on 19 July 2010. Retrieved 30 June 2010.
She is probably best known for her cylinder recordings of Aboriginal songs, recorded in 1899, which are the only audio recordings of an indigenous Tasmanian language.
- ^ "UNESCO RED BOOK ON ENDANGERED LANGUAGES: NORTHEAST ASIA". Archived from the original on 5 August 2012. Retrieved 8 July 2024.
Present state of the language: EXTINCT probably in the early 20th century, no exact date available
- ^ "The Jangil (Rutland Jarawa)". www.andaman.org. Archived from the original on 20 May 2013.
- ^ Gurdon, P.R.T (1903). "The Morāns". Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. 72 (1): 36.
- ^ "Ethnologue report for language code: myz". Archived from the original on 28 May 2015. Retrieved 21 April 2015.
- ^ Magocsi, Paul R. (2015). With their backs to the mountains: a history of Carpathian Rus' and Carpatho-Rusyns. Budapest: Central European University Press. ISBN 978-963-386-107-3. OCLC 929239528.
- ^ Linn, Dubh (18 July 2014). "Dublin Irish: When was Dublin Irish last spoken - and where?". Dublin Irish. Retrieved 2 September 2018.
- ^ "Mbara". Archived from the original on 7 January 2015.
- ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 January 2016. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^ "Ethnologue report for language code: nwa". Archived from the original on 12 April 2015. Retrieved 9 April 2015.
- ^ "Waling". Retrieved 22 April 2015.
- ^ Roegiest, Eugeen (2006). Vers les sources des langues romanes: un itinéraire linguistique à travers la Romania (in French). ACCO. p. 138. ISBN 978-90-334-6094-4.
- ^ Brahms, William B. (2005). Notable Last Facts: A Compendium of Endings, Conclusions, Terminations and Final Events throughout History. Original from the University of Michigan: Reference Desk Press. p. 183. ISBN 978-0-9765325-0-7.
- ^ Crowley, Terry (2007). Field linguistics: a beginner's guide. Oxford University Press. ISBN