Licancabur

Licancabur
Highest point
Elevation5,916 m (19,409 ft)
Parent peakSairecabur
Isolation12.6 km (7.8 mi)
to Sairecabur[a]
Coordinates22°50′2″S 67°53′1″W / 22.83389°S 67.88361°W / -22.83389; -67.88361
Geography
Licancabur is located in Bolivia
Licancabur
Licancabur
Location of Licancabur
LocationChile / Bolivia
Parent rangeAndes
Geology
Rock ageHolocene
Mountain typeStratovolcano
Last eruptionUnknown
Climbing
First ascentInca, pre-Columbian
Easiest routeHike

Licancabur (Spanish pronunciation: [likaŋkaˈβuɾ]) is a stratovolcano on the Bolivia–Chile border, south of the Sairecabur volcano and west of Juriques. It is part of the Andean Central Volcanic Zone and has a prominent, 5,916-metre (19,409 ft)-high cone. A 400–500-metre (1,300–1,600 ft) summit crater containing Licancabur Lake, a crater lake which is among the highest lakes in the world, caps the volcano. There are no glaciers owing to the arid climate. Numerous animal species and plants live on the mountain.

Licancabur formed from Pleistocene ignimbrites and it has been active during the Holocene, after the ice ages. Three stages of lava flows emanate from the edifice and have a young appearance. Although no historic eruptions of the volcano are known, lava flows extending into Laguna Verde have been dated to 13,240 ± 100 BP and there may be residual heat in the mountain. The volcano has primarily erupted andesite, with small amounts of dacite and basaltic andesite.

Several archaeological sites have been found on the mountain, both on its summit and northeastern foot. They are thought to have been constructed by the Inca or Atacama people for religious and cultural ceremonies and are among the most important in the region. The mountain is the subject of a number of myths, which view it as the husband of another mountain, the hiding place of Inca or the burial of an Inca king.

Etymology

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The name Licancabur comes from the Kunza language,[1] where lican means "people" or "town" and cábur/[2] caur, caure or cauri "mountain";[3] it may refer to the archaeological sites at the mountain.[4] The name of the volcano has also been translated as "upper village".[5] Other names are Licancáguar,[2] Licancaur (which is another orthography),[4] Tata Likanku[6] and Volcán de Atacama.[7]

Licancabur is one of the widely known volcanoes within Bolivia and Chile and can be seen from San Pedro de Atacama.[8][9] The region was conquered by the Inca in the 14th century and by the Spaniards during the 16th century.[1] Today it is of interest for research on animal health, remote sensing, telecommunication and the fact that the environment around Licancabur may be the closest equivalent to Mars that exists on Earth,[10][11][12] while current conditions at its lakes resemble those on former lakes on Mars.[13][14].[10]

Geography and geomorphology

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The volcano is in the Puna de Atacama[15]/Cordillera Occidental of the Andes. Politically, it is located in the Antofagasta Region of Chile[16] and the Potosí Department of Bolivia;[14] the border goes over Licancabur[b].[18] Less than 20 kilometres (12 mi) south is the Llano del Chajnantor Observatory.[19] San Pedro de Atacama is 32 kilometres (20 mi) west[1] of Licancabur while the adjacent region in Bolivia is largely uninhabited.[20] The border crossing Paso de Jama and the Chile Route 27 between Argentina and Chile pass along the southern foot of Licancabur.[21][22] In 1953, a road led to 4,300 metres (14,000 ft) elevation.[2]

Aerial view of Licancabur Lake, surrounded by a snow-covered inwards-sloping crater
Licancabur Lake at the bottom of the crater

Licancabur is a 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) high and 9 kilometres (5.6 mi) wide[18] uneroded[16] symmetrical cone[18] with steep slopes.[23] The mountain dominates its surroundings.[24] The summit at 5,916 metres (19,409 ft) elevation[25][c] is capped by a 500 metres (1,600 ft)[16]-400 metres (1,300 ft) wide summit crater.[28] The 70 by 90 metres (230 ft × 300 ft)[23] freshwater Licancabur Lake[29] in the crater is one of the highest lakes in the world.[30] The western slopes are better developed than the eastern. The total volume of the volcano is about 35 cubic kilometres (8.4 cu mi)[18] or 44 cubic kilometres (11 cu mi),[31] formed by layers of lava and pyroclastics.[25] There are traces of lahars.[32]

Young-looking[18] black-grey[33] lava flows emanate from the summit crater[25] and surround the cone, reaching distances of 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) from the summit west of Licancabur.[23] The flows are 10–50 metres (33–164 ft)[16] thick block lavas,[30] and feature structures like ridges, levees[18] and blocks several metres thick. A debris avalanche deposit is found on the western side of Licancabur.[16] The slopes of the mountain are notably unstable.[34]

The landscape around the volcano consists of basins separated by mountain chains.[35] At the northeastern foot of Licancabur is Laguna Verde.[36] The mountain is part of the drainage divide between the Altiplano and the Salar de Atacama.[37] Southwest of Licancabur are the Vilama and San Pedro rivers, which flow to San Pedro de Atacama.[38]

Geology

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Licancabur, against a blue sky across the Laguna Verde salt lake
Licancabur across Laguna Verde at more than 4,000 m (13,123 ft) elevation

Since the Jurassic period, the Farallon Plate and later the Nazca Plate have been subducting under the South American Plate in the Peru-Chile Trench.[39] This subduction is ongoing at a rate of 6.6 centimetres per year (2.6 in/year) and is responsible for the volcanism in the Andes,[40] as fluids emanating from the downgoing plate trigger melting within the overlying asthenosphere.[41] The Andean Central Volcanic Zone (CVZ) extends from southern Peru to cover Bolivia, Chile and Argentina, and contains the highest volcano in the world—Ojos del Salado).[39][42] The region also inclides Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex, one of the largest known ignimbrite province.[43] Licancabur is part of the southern CVZ,[44] where there are over a thousand volcanoes.[45] Older (Miocene) volcanoes are widespread, while Pleistocene-Holocene systems are concentrated in the main volcanic chain.[46] Lascar erupts every few years.[47]

The volcanic chain continues north across Portezuelo Chaxas mountain pass, beginning with Sairecabur.[24][48][36] To the southeast is 5,704 metres (18,714 ft) high[7] Juriques, which formed during the Pleistocene and has a 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) wide summit crater;[23] the two volcanoes form an offset in the volcanic chain.[49] Farther south next to Portezuelo del Cajon is Cerro Toco of the Purico complex.[22][15] The Chaxas lava dome was active during the Pliocene when it formed ignimbrites now buried under Licancabur.[30]

The volcano is on the edge between the Altiplano and the Salar de Atacama basin.[18] The basement contains intrusions of Paleozoic and sedimentary rocks of Mesozoic age,[45] forming the "Antofalla domain" of the Arequipa-Antofalla tectonic block that originated separately from South America.[50] Between 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) and 30 kilometres (19 mi) depth is the Altiplano-Puna Magma Body, a giant magma chamber that extends under the southern Altiplano and to Licancabur.[49] At the volcano, the basement is covered by ignimbrites[30] from the Chaxas, La Pacana[18] and Purico volcanoes,[44] and lava domes of dacitic-rhyodacitic composition.[30] Ignimbrites crop out in gorges south of Licancabur.[51] Faults associated with the Calama-Olacapato-El Toro lineament cut through the basement in southeast direction[18] and probably influenced the growth of Licancabur and Juriques.[49] Some faults were active during the Holocene.[52]

Composition

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Andesites are the main rocks at Licancabur, with some basaltic andesite and dacite.[53] They define an adakite-like suite and are less crystalline than rocks of other CVZ volcanoes.[54][44] The lavas were highly viscous, explaining why the Licancabur cone is so steep.[55] The main phenocryst phase is plagioclase while amphibole, clinopyroxene, iron-titanium oxides, olivine and orthopyroxene are subordinate.[18] Crystals often form aggregates.[33] Xenoliths of gabbro are found within the rocks.[44] Unlike many neighbouring volcanoes, Licancabur lacks sulfur deposits.[1]

Licancabur is built from magma formed through melting of altered oceanic crust[56] in the slab at 50–100 kilometres (31–62 mi) depth,[57] which in turn leads to melting in the mantle wedge that gives rise to the Licancabur magmas.[56] Assimilation of continental crustal rocks and fractional crystallization of amphibole and garnet would explain trace element patterns.[56][57] The magma deposits were stored in a chambers where crystals formed.[58]

Climate and vegetation

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Vegetation is sparse near the volcano
Llamas and vegetation in front of Licancabur

The climate is cold, dry, windy with low atmospheric pressure and large day-night temperature differences.[10] Daytime temperatures on the summit range from 5 – −25 °C (41 – −13 °F) and at nighttime between −25 – −40 °C (−13 – −40 °F).[13] Annual mean precipitation reaches 360 millimetres (14 in) decreasing to 200 metres (660 ft) at its base,[59] but is highly variable.[60] The Atacama Desert is one of the driest on Earth.[61] The arid climate is due to subsidence of air within the South Pacific Anticyclone, which extends to the Andes.[62] Owing to the dry climate,[63] snow cover on Licancabur is ephemeral[1] and there are no glaciers.[63] During the local Last Glacial Maximum the snowline may have decreased to 4,000–4,800 metres (13,100–15,700 ft) elevation[64] but there is no evidence of glacial activity on Licancabur.[65] Periglacial phenomena occur on Licancabur.[66] The region likely has Earth's highest insolation rate.[d][69]

Plants on Licancabur include grasses, tola and yareta.[70][71] There is a vertical structure, with cushion plants and tussocks dominating within a 3,850–4,200 metres (12,630–13,780 ft) elevation, widely spaced shrubs between 2,700–3,100 metres (8,900–10,200 ft), and the highest plant density found within these belts.[27] Some areas are used as pastures.[72] Isolated wetlands occur at the foot of the volcano.[73]

The fauna includes birds (black-hooded sierra finch, black-winged ground dove and Puna tinamou),[74] frogs (Rhinella spinulosa),[75] insects (butterflies,[71] cuckoo bees[e] and flies),[71] lizards (Liolaemus audituvelatus, Liolaemus barbarae, Liolaemus constanzae, Liolaemus fabiani and Liolaemus puritamensis),[77] mammals (Andean hairy armadillo,[78] chinchilla,[71] culpeo, guanaco, southern vizcacha and vicuña)[79] and toads (Telmatobius vilamensis).[75] The Bolivian sector is part of the Eduardo Avaroa Andean Fauna National Reserve.[80] In Chile, there were plans to create a protected area including Licancabur and El Tatio, but as of 2018 no progress had been made.[81]

Volcanic history

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The volcano formed mostly during the Late Pleistocene-Holocene, and bears no traces of glacial erosion.[40][18] Three generations of lava flows are distinguishable from their appearance and chemistry. The basal unit crops out at the western and northeastern foot and consists of the earliest magma; the intermediate layer, which forms most of the western and southern sectors; and the upper unit, which forms the central cone and represents the most differentiated magmas.[82] The older flows are north and west of Licancabur, overlap with flows from Sairecabur and are partly buried by debris avalanche deposits and moraines.[18][44] Activity at Licancabur impacted the environment at Laguna Verde, causing changes in water chemistry.[83]

An earlier explosive eruption produced pyroclastic flows.[16] The flank lava flows are the most recent activity.[23] There are no known historical or Holocene eruptions,[18][84] and the preservation of Inca ruins in the summit implies that it has been inactive for 600–1000 years.[25] However, the elevated temperatures in the crater implyies that the volcano still has heat,[85] while lava flows overran 13,240 ± 100 years old shorelines at Laguna Verde.[83] Licancabur is thus considered to be potentially active,[65] although SERNAGEOMIN deems it as low-hazard, and as of 2023 placed it as the 68th most dangerous volcano in Chilie, out of total of 87.[86] Given the volcano is remote from inhabited areas, any pyroclastic fallout would be of limited extent.[85]

Archaeology and religious importance

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Prehistoric manmade constructions are widespread on the mountains of the region, including Licancabur and Juriques.[87] The complex on Licancabur includes multiple structures with mostly semicircular or rectangular shapes[88] and a ceremonial platform,[89] all in the eastern part of the crater.[88] The structures may have had had roofs and are built like pircas (no mortar).[90][91] Reports from 1887 and 1955 mention piles of wood.[92][91] A stone semicircle surrounding an upright stone has been compared to an altar, ushnu.[93] The sites on the summit were presumably used for equinox and solstice feasts.[94] Notably, no human sacrifices (capacocha) are associated with Licancabur.[89]

Inca ruins
Ruins at the foot of Licancabur

Another site, Tambo de Licancabur or Tambo Licancabur, lies at 4,600 metres (15,100 ft) elevation on the northeastern foot of Licancabur.[95][96][97][98] It consists of over a hundred man-made structures[99] and a 70 metres (230 ft) long public square. More than a hundred people could stay at Tambo de Licancabur,[100] which was not permanently inhabited.[101] Both Inca and local pottery styles have been found there.[102] From Tambo de Licancabur, a zig-zag path led up to the mountain,[103][94] along which there are further Inca structures[104] from which Tambo de Licancabur was visible;[105] today the path is largely destroyed or blocked by landslides.[94] Tambo de Licancabur has been interpreted either as a site where, during festivities, people who could not ascent the mountain congregated[106] – a base camp, corpahuasi[107] – or as a tambo, an Inca waystation, on the road between San Pedro de Atacama and Inca territories in present-day Bolivia. This interpretation is not mutually exclusive with the former.[108][98] The whole Licancabur complex was one of the most important in the region,[104] and may have been part of a wider regional religious centre.[109] The archaeological sites on Licancabur are sometimes interpreted to be part of a lookout system for the region,[110][111] or as a symbol of Inca dominance in the San Pedro de Atacama area.[112] The Inca road passed at the foot of the volcano,[113] making the site easily accessible.[100]

The mountain was worshipped by the Atacameno and Inca until the 20th century.[1][98][2] Licancabur was important in local cultural rituals,[114] and is to this day used in culturally important events.[115] At least one burial in a local cemetery was oriented to Licancabur.[116]

There are several legends tied to the mountain: The male Licancabur was married to female Quimal in the Cordillera Domeyko,[87][117] and the two are considered paramount mountains which protect the local communities[118] and fertilize the ground during their copulation.[119] In the local Atacameno mythology the mountain controls fire (and San Pedro water),[120] while in Socaire's mythology it is a source of water.[121] In another myth Licancabur is the tomb of a legless Inca king[122] that was carried around the region in a litter.[123] A final tale says that once, the crater lake had fresh water. When Inca fled from white people to Licancabur, they hid their treasures. The waters of the lake turned bitter and its colour green.[124] Ascending the mountain was considered taboo,[2] and the mountain vigorously defends against violations of its summit;[94] allegedly the 1953 Calama earthquake was in retaliation for the ascent of the mountain in that year.[91] Whether there are legends of Inca treasury associated with Licancabur[94] is unclear.[2]

Ascent

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Licancabur seen from a tree-lined town road
Licancabur, seen from the town of San Pedro de Atacama

The mountain was first ascended by the Inca or the Atacameno people.[91] The first documented ascent was by Severo Titichoca in November 1884.[125] Climbers typically approach Licancabur from the Bolivian side. It can be ascended year round, although caution is needed during winter. Ascents take six hours, descents take about half that time. Poor weather conditions can quickly develop, and ascending can be difficult given the unstable slopes on the upper cone.[124][28][126]

Notes

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  1. ^ Direct measurement with Google Earth, Line Ruler tool
  2. ^ Licancabur is explicitly mentioned in the Treaty of Valparaiso that establishes the border.[17]
  3. ^ Other elevations have been reported,[26][24] including heights exceeding 6,000 metres (20,000 ft).[27]
  4. ^ Claims that the UV index at Licancabur can reach values exceeding 40 have drawn scrutiny, as such high UV indices may not be plausible within Earth's atmosphere[67] even accounting for UV radiation reflected by clouds.[68]
  5. ^ A species of cuckoo bee has been named after the volcano.[76]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d e f Rudolph 1955, p. 153.
  2. ^ a b c d e f Rudolph 1955, p. 154.
  3. ^ Garrido & Ballester 2021, p. 39.
  4. ^ a b Vaisse 1895, p. 545.
  5. ^ Bobylyova & Сергеевна 2016, p. 126.
  6. ^ Villagrán et al. 1998, p. 26.
  7. ^ a b GVP 2024, Synonyms & Subfeatures.
  8. ^ Oppenheimer 1993, p. 66.
  9. ^ Butelski 2020, p. 7.
  10. ^ a b c Morris, Berthold & Cabrol 2007, p. 155.
  11. ^ Grandjean et al. 1996, p. 607.
  12. ^ Montgomery et al. 2004, p. 2194.
  13. ^ a b Cabrol et al. 2003, p. 1.
  14. ^ a b Cabrol, Grin & Hock 2007, p. 4.
  15. ^ a b Rudolph 1955, p. 160.
  16. ^ a b c d e f Figueroa & Déruelle 1997, p. 322.
  17. ^ González Miranda & Leiva Gómez 2016, p. 19.
  18. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Figueroa & Deruelle 1996, p. 563.
  19. ^ Giovanelli et al. 2001, p. 791.
  20. ^ Nielsen, Calcina & Quispe 2003, p. 371.
  21. ^ Borsdorf & Stadel 2013, p. 78.
  22. ^ a b Amigo, Bertin & Orozco 2012, Hoja 3 de 5.
  23. ^ a b c d e GVP 2024, General Information.
  24. ^ a b c Rudolph 1955, p. 151.
  25. ^ a b c d SERNAGEOMIN 2024.
  26. ^ Brackebusch 1893, p. 567.
  27. ^ a b Cavieres et al. 2002, p. 1303.
  28. ^ a b Morris, Berthold & Cabrol 2007, p. 156.
  29. ^ Rudolph 1955, p. 164.
  30. ^ Amigo, Bertin & Orozco 2012, p. 37.
  31. ^ Amigo, Bertin & Orozco 2012, p. 39.
  32. ^ a b Figueroa & Déruelle 1997, p. 324.
  33. ^ Rudolph 1955, p. 161.
  34. ^ Quintanilla 1976, p. 28.
  35. ^ a b Figueroa & Deruelle 1996, p. 564.
  36. ^ Niemeyer 1980, p. 59.
  37. ^ Sepúlveda Rivera et al. 2015, pp. 189–190.
  38. ^ a b Amigo, Bertin & Orozco 2012, p. 5.
  39. ^ a b Amigo, Bertin & Orozco 2012, p. 6.
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  41. ^ Amigo, Bertin & Orozco 2012, p. 7.
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  44. ^ a b Tibaldi, Bonali & Corazzato 2017, p. 18.
  45. ^ Tibaldi, Bonali & Corazzato 2017, p. 23.
  46. ^ Häder & Cabrol 2018, p. 157.
  47. ^ Le Paige 1978, p. 37.
  48. ^ a b c González-Maurel et al. 2019, p. 3.
  49. ^ Mamani, Worner & Sempere 2010, p. 170.
  50. ^ Guest 1968, p. 177.
  51. ^ Tibaldi, Bonali & Corazzato 2017, p. 28.
  52. ^ Figueroa & Deruelle 1996, p. 566.
  53. ^ Figueroa, Déruelle & Demaiffe 2009, p. 314.
  54. ^ Kussmaul et al. 1977, p. 88.
  55. ^ a b c Figueroa, Déruelle & Demaiffe 2009, p. 317.
  56. ^ a b Figueroa, Déruelle & Demaiffe 2009, p. 315.
  57. ^ Figueroa & Déruelle 1997, p. 326.
  58. ^ Sepúlveda Rivera et al. 2015, p. 189.
  59. ^ Quintanilla 1976, p. 30.
  60. ^ Giovanelli et al. 2001, p. 789.
  61. ^ Gjorup et al. 2019, p. 311.
  62. ^ a b Gjorup et al. 2019, p. 310.
  63. ^ Tibaldi, Bonali & Corazzato 2017, p. 19.
  64. ^ a b Francis & De Silva 1989, p. 250.
  65. ^ Gjorup et al. 2019, p. 312.
  66. ^ McKenzie et al. 2017, p. 1.
  67. ^ McKenzie et al. 2017, p. 2.
  68. ^ Rondanelli, Molina & Falvey 2015, p. 416.
  69. ^ Quintanilla 1976, p. 34.
  70. ^ a b c d Rudolph 1955, p. 170.
  71. ^ Díaz Sanz et al. 2022, p. 23.
  72. ^ Calamatta 1975, p. 29.
  73. ^ Möller 2003, p. 7.
  74. ^ a b Möller 2003, p. 4.
  75. ^ Packer & Graham 2020, p. 10.
  76. ^ Möller 2003, pp. 2–3.
  77. ^ Möller 2003, p. 5.
  78. ^ Möller 2003, pp. 5–6.
  79. ^ SERNAP 2020.
  80. ^ Porcaro, Vejsbjerg & Benedetti 2018, 6. 5. 3. Las anp de la región circumpuneña (rc).
  81. ^ Figueroa & Déruelle 1997, pp. 322, 325.
  82. ^ a b Häder & Cabrol 2018, p. 163.
  83. ^ GVP 2024, Eruptive History.
  84. ^ a b Amigo, Bertin & Orozco 2012, p. 16.
  85. ^ SERNAGEOMIN 2023.
  86. ^ a b Le Paige 1978, p. 38.
  87. ^ a b Reinhard 1985, p. 302.
  88. ^ a b Vitry 2020, p. 517.
  89. ^ Ceruti 2016, p. 73.
  90. ^ a b c d Rudolph 1955, p. 156.
  91. ^ Geographischer Monatsbericht 1887, p. 155.
  92. ^ Farrington 2022, p. 244.
  93. ^ a b c d e Le Paige 1966, p. 49.
  94. ^ Salazar, Berenguer & Vega 2013, p. 103.
  95. ^ Le Paige 1978, p. 41.
  96. ^ Nielsen et al. 1999, p. 100.
  97. ^ a b c Nielsen, Berenguer & Sanhueza 2006, p. 222.
  98. ^ Reinhard 1983, p. 56.
  99. ^ a b Reinhard & Ceruti 2010, p. 93.
  100. ^ Le Paige 1978, p. 39.
  101. ^ Reinhard & Ceruti 2006, p. 14.
  102. ^ Vitry 2020, p. 513.
  103. ^ a b Reinhard 1985, p. 305.
  104. ^ Reinhard & Ceruti 2010, p. 97.
  105. ^ Le Paige 1966, p. 50.
  106. ^ Ceruti 2016, p. 70.
  107. ^ Reinhard & Ceruti 2006, p. 15.
  108. ^ Ceruti 2012, p. 268.
  109. ^ Pizarro 2010, p. 25.
  110. ^ Rudolph 1955, p. 165.
  111. ^ Echenique et al. 2021, p. 18.
  112. ^ Aros & Ibaceta 1994, p. 31.
  113. ^ Barthel 1959, p. 33.
  114. ^ Sepúlveda, Ayala & Aguilar 2008, p. 7.
  115. ^ Torres et al. 1991, p. 642.
  116. ^ Barros 1997, pp. 87–88.
  117. ^ Moraga 2010, p. 393.
  118. ^ Contreras 1994, p. 183.
  119. ^ Chocobar & Tironi 2023, p. 80.
  120. ^ Sherbondy 1986, p. 66.
  121. ^ Nielsen, Berenguer & Sanhueza 2006, p. 232.
  122. ^ Nielsen 2009, p. 29.
  123. ^ a b SERNAP 2023.
  124. ^ Rudolph 1955, p. 159.
  125. ^ Rudolph 1955, p. 152.

Sources

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Bibliography

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  • Biggar, Cathy; Biggar, John (2001). The Andes: A Trekking Guide. Andes. ISBN 978-0-9536087-1-3.
  • Dillehay, Tom D.; Netherly, Patricia (1998). La Frontera del Estado Inca (in Spanish). Editorial Abya Yala. ISBN 978-9978-04-977-8.
  • Mena, Mauricio (2018). El Licancabur tiene su historia, todos los cerros la tienen. Mitos, leyendas y fábulas altoandinas (in Spanish). San Pedro de Atacama: Ediciones del Desierto.
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