List of Italian inventions and discoveries

Leonardo wrote aerodynamic studies in a notebook eventually titled ''Codex on the Flight of Birds''.[1]
The Barsanti-Matteucci engine, the first proper internal combustion engine
The voltaic pile presented by Alessandro Volta to Napoleone Bonaparte
Alessandro Cruto, creator of the first practical long-lasting incandescent light bulb[2]

Italian inventions and discoveries are objects, processes or techniques invented, innovated or discovered, partially or entirely, by Italians.

Italian people – living in the Italic peninsula or abroad – have been throughout history[3] the source of important inventions and innovations in the fields of writing,[4][5] calendar,[6] mechanical[7] and civil engineering,[8][9][10][11] musical notation,[12] celestial observation,[13] perspective,[14] warfare,[15][16][17][18] long distance communication,[19][20][21] storage[22] and production[23][24] of energy, modern medicine,[25] polymerization[26][27] and information technology.[28][29]

Italians also contributed in theorizing civil law,[30][31] scientific method (particularly in the fields of physics and astronomy),[32] double-entry bookkeeping,[33] mathematical algebra[34] and analysis,[35][36] classical and celestial mechanics.[37][38] Often, things discovered for the first time are also called inventions and in many cases, there is no clear line between the two.

The following is a list of inventions, innovations or discoveries known or generally recognized to be Italian.

This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by adding missing items with reliable sources.

Alphabetical list of Italian Inventions

[edit]

A

[edit]

B

[edit]

C

[edit]
  • Calculator (programmable): the Programma 101, one of the first desktop electronic programmable calculators, was designed by a small team led by Pier Giorgio Perotto of Olivetti, between 1962 and 1964 and launched in 1965.[49][50]
  • Dipped candle: Romans made candles using rendered animal fat (called tallow), beginning around 500 BC.[51]
  • Caprotti valve gear: a valve design that found significant application in steam locomotives.
  • Carbon paper, invented by Pellegrino Turri in 1806[52]
  • Casino: the first public, legal and government-owned casino was a Venetian four-story gambling house called "Ridotto", opened in 1638.[53]
  • Julian calendar: later perfected by Luigi Lilio becoming the Gregorian calendar,[6] which is today's internationally accepted civil calendar, also known as the Western or Christian calendar.[54]
  • Cardan suspension of a gimbal: named after the Italian inventor Gerolamo Cardano (1501–1576), who described the device in detail. This device made inertial navigation possible.
  • Cello: with 'The King Violoncello' by Andrea Amati being the earliest known bass instrument of the violin family to survive.[55]
  • Centrifugal Pump: the first machine that could be characterized as a centrifugal pump was a mud lifting machine that appeared as early as 1475 in a treatise by the Italian Renaissance engineer Francesco di Giorgio Martini.[56]
  • Codex: is the precursor of modern books, having defined the reference format of virtually all the books of Western civilization. Invented during Roman times, its adoption was later spread by Christianity.[57][4]
  • (Modern Diesel) Common Rail: designed by researcher Mario Ricco of the FIAT Group.[58][59]
  • Proportional compass: generally featuring a proportional scale, it could be used for calculus of infinitesimals and proportions of geometric figures. There are three types:[60]
  • Roman concrete: for edification purposes, more resilient than modern concrete.[8][63][64]
  • Confetti: initially meaning a type of sweet, then used for analogy to indicate little chalk balls used in Italy during carnival festivities. Mangilli di Crescenzago (Milan) is credited as an early inventor of paper confetti.[65]
  • Connecting rod: a device invented by Roman engineers to transform circular motion into linear motion.
  • Corvus: Roman naval boarding device.[66]
  • Composite order: Imperial Roman form of the Corinthian order.

D

[edit]
  • Dental fillings: First mentioned by Cornelius Celsus in the 1st century AD.[67]
  • Dentures: the first dentures were developed by the Etruscans in 700 BC[68]
  • Di Pietro air engine: a pneumatic engine built by Angelo Di Pietro, which require very low pressure to start rotation.[69] This engine produces almost no vibration, internal wear or friction and is potentially useful for a wide range of environment-friendly applications.[70][71] In 2004, it has 100% more efficiency than any other air engine to that date. It also represents the first air engine that could be applied in transportation.[72]
  • Dipleidoscope: invented by Giovan Battista Amici.[73]
  • Dollying: to move a camera on a dolly, esp. toward or away from the subject being filmed or televised. Giovanni Pastrone first used this method in 1914.
  • Doppio Borgato: a musical instrument which is a variation of the piano[74]
  • Double-entry bookkeeping system (for accounting):[33] developed in the mercantile city-states of medieval Italy and first documented by Lucas de Burgo in Venice. Perfected by Amatino Mannucci in the 14th century.[75] The actual invention could have been Roman or Asiatic. Anyway, the system reached a huge diffusion as a consequence of Italian use and theorisation, with Summa de Arithmetica containing the rules of double-entry, the first example of calculating a neperian logarithm as well as early examples of probability calculus.[76]
  • Doxorubicin: a chemotherapy agent invented by Farmitalia Spa in the 1950s.[77]
  • D-Shape: a new 3D printer capable of printing entire buildings invented in 2004 by Enrico Dini.[78]

E

[edit]
  • Eau de Cologne: perfume developed by Johann Maria Farina in 1709.[79]
  • Electroplating: a manufacturing technique invented by Luigi Valentino Brugnatelli in 1805.[80] He pioneered galvanoplastic experiments, introducing the technique of electroplating. His acquaintance with A. Volta played an important role in his scientific career. He hypothesized that in the chemical pile there was also a transport of atoms, obtaining experimental evidence of this. He discovered the properties of coal cathodes as electrical conductors and succeeded in covering them with a metallic layer. He sensed the possible applications in the industrial field, sharing this procedure with a Pavese goldsmith, who used it.[81]
  • Encyclopedia: from the Greek enkýklios paidèia, meaning a set of doctrines constituting a complete education. The comprehensive works of Aristotle can be considered encyclopedic (covering politics, rhetoric, ethic, aesthetic, psychology, biology, math). The first Latin encyclopedia was written by Cato the Elder in an attempt to mitigate the influence of Greek culture. He wrote for his son an "encyclopedia" of what he believed to be the necessary subjects for the Roman citizen: agriculture, rhetoric, medicine, law and warfare. Marcus T. Varro wrote a second, more complete and systematic encyclopedia, covering nine disciplines: grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, musical theory, medicine, and architecture. Plinius the Elder wrote Historia naturalis, the first encyclopedia to survive as a complete work. Marziano F. Capella wrote an allegoric encyclopedia in prose and verses, De nuptiis Mercurii et Philologiae[82]. These encyclopedias, along with the works of Cassiodorus and Boethius, paved the way for the medieval seven liberal arts.[83]
  • Epidemiology (innovated): Roman scholar Marcus Varro mentioned microorganisms as a possible causal agent of diseases. Girolamo Fracastoro, in the mid 16th century, was the first one to scientifically state the real nature of germs, infection, and contagious ways of disease transmission.[84] He attributed the causes of diseases to very small living particles, invisible to the eye. They were considered vulnerable to fire, capable of self multiplying as well as spreading by air.[85]
  • Espresso machine:
    • first prototype invented by Angelo Moriondo in 1884 in Turin.[86]
    • (piston driven model) invented by Achille Gaggia in 1945.[87]
  • Estimo: discipline, part of economic science, which establishes the logical and methodological principles allowing a reasoned, objective and generally valid formulation of the esteem of the monetary value of economic goods.[88] The first estimative surveys of a normative character took shape with the Italian Catasti a Valore (translated, land-value registers), called Estimi a Apprezzi. Florentine estimate method was already codified in the thirteenth century. From the sixteenth century the land, merchant and then civil esteems of the capital began to spread in Italy.[89][88] The first modern treaty on Estimo was Trattato della stima dei Beni Stabili by Cosimo Trinci, who introduced the concept of ascending and descending influences on the capitalization rate according to the different land's characteristics.[88] Also see Roman Cadastre.
  • Eudiometer: invented by Alessandro Volta[90] and Marsilio Landriani. Thanks to this instrument Lavoisier discovered the chemical composition of water.[91]
  • Eyeglasses: originating from Italy, the eyeglasses were perhaps the invention of an unidentified Venetian glassmaker of the 13th century. The research of Roger Bacon on magnifying glasses probably aided their future development.[92]

F

[edit]
  • Film festival: founded as Esposizione d’Arte Cinematografica, the Venice Film Festival was established in 1932.[93]
  • Forlanini helicopter: first engine-powered helicopter. A steam powered helicopter which first flew in 1877, designed by Enrico Forlanini in Milan. This has represented the first heavier-than-air aircraft lifting from the ground with autonomous means.[94] Italian engineering will further develop the helicopter: on 7 April 1925 Corradino d'Ascanio patented the helicopter with two coaxial propellers.[95] Other patents and inventions related to the aeronautical world followed.[96][97]
  • Firefighting: The earliest firefighters were in the city of Rome. In 60 A.D., Roman emperor Nero established a corps of Vigiles, to protect Rome from disastrous fires.[98]

G

[edit]

H

[edit]

I

[edit]

J

[edit]
  • Jacuzzi Spa: founded in 1915 by seven Italian brothers from Northern Italy and led by Giocondo and Candido Jacuzzi.[127] Its first product was a portable hydrotherapy unit that sat in the bath.[128]
  • Jeans: type of trousers originated from the city of Genoa, Italy (hence probably the name) and possibly Nîmes, France. Modern Jeans have been invented by Jacob Davis and Levi Strauss in 1873.[129][130]
  • Jumping position in horsemanship: developed by Federico Caprilli.

L

[edit]
  • Launeddas (or Sardinian triple clarinet): typical Sardinian woodwind instrument composed by three pipes.[131]
  • Lazaret (quarantine station): the first was founded by the Republic of Venice in 1403, on a small island in the Venetian lagoon.
  • Light bulb (partially innovated): Alessandro Cruto built the first light bulb having a carbon filament treated with ethylene. The filament, under high pressure and temperature, acquires a positive resistance coefficient (when temperature increases, resistance increases as well). Cruto's bulb was officially lit 5 months after Edison bulb (on 4 March 1880). Cruto's filament improved the durability of the bulb from Edison's 40 hours to 500 hours of lighting.[132]

M

[edit]

N

[edit]

O

[edit]

P

[edit]

Q

[edit]

R

[edit]
  • Radio: developed, successfully tested in 1895 by Guglielmo Marconi[21] and produced on industrial scale as a long-distance communication medium. Marconi partially relied on similar technologies developed by the Serbian inventor Nikola Tesla. Both inventors have always had an independent interest in wireless technology and patents issued and reversed suited the economical needs of the time.[181]
  • Radiogoniometer: radio-electric apparatus that enables to determinate the direction, and thus the position, of transmission of the radio waves emitted.[182] Applied in radio-assisted navigation, it represented the oldest (as well as one of the most important) instrument.[183][184] To the development contributed Ettore Bellini,[185] militar engineer Alessandro Tosi,[186] and Alessandro Artom[184] (inventor of the "cross-frame" r. for long and medium length waves transmitters).[187][188]
  • Reggio Emilia approach: an educational method to be applied in preschooling.
  • Revolver: The Italian artisan and inventor Francesco Antonio Broccu (1797–1882), born in Gadoni, Sardinia, is regarded as the first developer of the Revolver, realised by him in 1833.[189][190][191][192]
  • RFID (Radio Frequency Identification): the first RFID system was patented in America by the Italian-American Mario Cardullo. The system itself derives from the IFF transponder, which had been introduced by Great Britain during WWII. This RFID technology was used for the telepass, a smart card allowing the driver to pass through a motorway's toll station without halting the vehicle, as well as other contactless mobile payments.[193][194][195]

S

[edit]
  • San Marco 1: a satellite of historical relevance: Italy was the third country, after the Soviet Union and the United States, to successfully launch a satellite, in 1964.
  • School (partially innovated): at the height of the Roman Republic (and later during the Empire) parents were expected to have their children alphabetized and educated (albeit with partial gender discrimination on the specific subjects),[196] especially in order to enter a political career. Formal schools were established and arranged in progressive and meritocratic tiers. In the words of Quintilian, a teacher in the 1st century AD: "Some boys are lazy, unless forced to work; others do not like being controlled; some will respond to fear but others are paralyzed by it. Give me a boy who is encouraged by praise, delighted by success and ready to weep over failure." The rigorous educational method and curriculum used in Rome was copied in its provinces, providing a basis for education systems throughout later Western civilization.[197][198]
  • Science academy: the first scientific society was the Academia Secretorum Naturae founded in Naples in 1560 by the polymath Giambattista della Porta.[199]
  • Seawalls: ancient Rome pioneered concrete sea walls.[63]
  • Secchi disk: created by Angelo Secchi used to measure water transparency or turbidity in bodies of water
  • (Modern) electromagnetic seismograph: in 1855 Luigi Palmieri realizes a seismograph consisting of U-shaped tubes oriented on the different cardinal directions, filling them with mercury. When an earthquake shakes the ground, the motion of the mercury produces an electrical contact that stops a clock and at the same time starts a recording drum registering the motion of a float on the surface of mercury. Results are: time of occurrence, relative intensity and duration. In 1875 Filippo Cecchi introduces the first pendulum seismograph in which the relative motion of the pendulums (with respect to ground motions) is recorded as a function of time.[200][201]
  • Roman Senate: a deliberative assembly of the Romans, lasting from the 8th century BC to at least the 7th century AD. The term senate comes from the Latin senatus or "Assembly of Elders". Previous councils of elders are known in Greece and in the Greek cities of Hellenistic and Roman ages; there was also a similar organism in Carthage. Rome established the senate as one of the fundamental institutions of the state and, for a long time, the main responsible for both domestic and foreign policy. Until the 15th century, the magistracy of the (roman) senator appointed by the Pope, along with magistrates of popular nomination (i.e. tribunes, reformers, conservatories), retained real authority, lasting with a symbolic role until the 19th century.[202]
  • Shopping Center: the earliest example of public shopping mall was the Trajan's Market in Ancient Rome built around 100-110 AD by Apollodorus of Damascus.
  • Sphygmomanometer (partially innovated): invented by the Austrian Samuel Siegfried Karl Ritter von Basch, Scipione Riva Rocci added to the design a key element: a cuff encircling the arm. Previous designs had used rubber bulbs filled with water or air to manually compress the artery or other technically complicated ways of pressure measurement.[203]
  • Staff: invented by music theorist Guido of Arezzo, whose four-line staff is still used today.
  • Star fort (or Italian outline): with the first examples located in Italy, built towards the mid-15th century.[204] The bastioned trace was originally developed by Italian architects (e.g. Francesco di Giorgio Martini, Giuliano Giamberti da Sangallo, Michelangelo Buonarroti),[205][206] with experimentations of shapes continuing during the 16th century (see, for instance, castle of Copertino[207])
  • Stiletto: a type of narrow dagger appearing in Italy during the Middle Ages.
  • Stock Exchange (origins): the underlying principles of stock exchange were introduced by Italian merchants in Bruges (Belgium);[208] an early example of stock exchange dates back to around 1309 in an inn called "Huis ter Beurze". The inn belonged to the Ter Bourse family, merchants of possible (if not likely) Venetian origin (della Borsa), who conducted transactions at the inn.[209][210][211] The term 'beurs' derives from the name of this inn, spreading to other European countries and evolving into 'bourse', 'borsa', 'bolsa', 'börse', etc. In England the term ‘bourse’ was used between 1550 and 1775, eventually giving way to the term ‘royal exchange'.[212]

T

[edit]
  • Modern enclosed Theater: Their structure was similar to that of ancient theaters, with a cavea and an architectural scenery, representing a city street. The oldest surviving examples of this style are the Teatro Olimpico in Vicenza (1580) and the Teatro all'antica in Sabbioneta (1590).[citation needed]
  • Prepaid telephone card: the Italian phone company SIP (later becoming Telecom Italia) inaugurated the earliest pre-paid electronic phone cards in 1976, as a response to shortages of coin and theft of tokens and coins from public telephones.[213][214] The invention of the phone card itself (soon after spread in Europe) dates 1975,[215] introduced by the Italian SIDA and was initially used at a SIP public telephone center in Rome.[214] Tim introduced the first prepaid sims in 1996.[216][217][218]
  • Automatic telephone exchange: the first one being built for the Vatican in 1886 by Giovanni Battista Marzi.[219]
  • Television (partially innovated): the Italian-American Augusto Bissiri was an early pioneer of the transmission of pictures, and is credited as an inventor of the television.[220] His first short-distance transmission occurred in 1906, while his first intercontinental one dates 1917. In 1922 a system composed by disks,[221] cathode-ray tube and screen is filed for patent;[222] other improvements followed.[223] Among other inventions, he developed a railway safety system and the Lettera Disco (lit. letter-disk), a voice recording device.[224] In 1927 Philo Farnsworth performed the first transmission of a fully electronic image. Later, a legal battle broke out between him and V. Zworykin.
  • Thermojet: an early type of motorjet (jet engine) developed by Secondo Campini,[225] whose prototype Caproni Campini N.1 has been the first (successful) publicly demonstrated jet airplane.[226] He applied the motor-jet to boats too.[225] Despite being abandoned in favor of turbojets, Campini' s work has inspired other new propulsion approaches.[227][228]
  • Galileo thermometer: invented by Galileo Galilei in 1593.
  • Toffoli gate: a universal reversible logic gate invented by Tommaso Toffoli.
  • Public toilets: latrines were part of the sanitation system of ancient Rome, placed near or as part of public baths (thermae).[229][230] During the Middle Ages sanitation partially regressed, to be reintroduced in Europe by Britain (WC or water-closet)[231] and France.
  • Tarot: Tarot, any of a set of cards used in tarot games and in fortune-telling. Tarot decks were invented in Italy in the 1430s by adding to the existing four-suited pack a fifth suit of 21 specially illustrated cards called trionfi (“triumphs”) and an odd card called il matto (“the fool”).[232]
  • Tarot card reading: One of the earliest reference to tarot triumphs is given c. 1450–1470 by a Dominican preacher in a sermon against dice, playing cards and 'triumphs'. References to the tarot as a social plague continue throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, but there are no indications that the cards were used for anything but games anywhere. As philosopher and tarot historian Sir Michael Dummett noted, "it was only in the 1780s, when the practice of fortune-telling with regular playing cards had been well established for at least two decades, that anyone began to use the tarot pack for cartomancy."[233]
  • Tontine: a form of life insurance developed by Lorenzo De Tonti in 1653.
  • Torpedo: invented by the Italian G. B. Luppis and perfected by the English R. Whitehead.[234]
  • Touchpad (co-invented): Federico Faggin has been co-founder and CEO of Synaptics. He co-invented many patents assigned to Synaptics,[235] which produced and commercialized the first touch-pad and the earliest touchscreens. In an interview, Faggin stated that Apple had been the first company to be truly interested on Synaptics' touchscreens, asking for the exclusive on the technology. The offer was declined; nonetheless the later success of iPhones and iPads opened a huge market for Synaptics.[236]
  • Trimprob: used for the electromagnetic detection of cancerous tissue, was developed in 1992 by Italian engineer Clarbruno Vedruccio.
  • Triumphal Arch: the first recorded triumphal arches were set up in the time of the Roman Republic.[237]
  • Typewriter: in 1575 the venetian printer and bookseller Francesco Rampazetto[238] created the first prototype of a machine that could impress letters on a piece of paper by means of "tactile writing".[239][240] In 1714 the English engineer Henry Mill patented a typewriter without fabricating it.[240] Early versions of the typewriter are reported in Austria in 1779[240] and Italy just after 1800 by Pellegrino Turri and Pietro Conti di Cilavegna.[241] In 1855 Novara lawyer Giuseppe Ravizza built and patented the Cembalo scrivano or macchina da scrivere a tasti (lit. "key based typing machine"), modeling its keyboard design on the keys of pianoforte. The Cembalo Scrivano is recognized as the most advanced typing machine until the invention of Remington. Cembalo scrivano was also capable of printing upper and lower cases that didn't exist yet in the first Remington typewriter machine.[citation needed]
    • electronic typewriter: Olivetti ET 101 is the first Olivetti e. t. (1978) and is the first global-scale produced electronic typewriter.[242][243][244]
  • Tuscan order: Classical order developed by the Romans.

U

[edit]
  • Unibody of Lancia Lambda, a car designed by Vincenzo Lancia and presented between 1921-'22. The vehicle introduced the fusion between chassis and bodywork, halving the weight compared to similar displacement cars and providing much higher resistance to impact in respect to traditional structures.[245] Other new features included independent front suspension, allowing better safety, and a V-shaped overhead four cylinder engine.[246][247][248][249]
  • University: the term comes from the Latin "universus", meaning "the whole / the universe", indicating a community of masters and scholars focused on higher learning[250] concerning all - both secular and religious - human knowledge known to that date, namely Jurisprudence, Medicine, Philosophy and Theology. European academics attending the universities were expected to have already mastered the seven liberal arts, spanning from grammar to music and astronomy. The University of Bologna (founded around 1088 AD) is, by these standards, the first university of the world and, as its motto goes, 'Nourishing Mother of the Studies'.[251][252] Many other universities started flourishing in Italy from the 13th century onward. Previous higher educational institutions existed during the Islamic Golden Age (the first one being the University of Karueein in 859 AD), focusing mainly on Islam (religion and laws) and only later obtaining the status of Universities. European universities themselves have, in part, religious origins, rooted in medieval Christian monastic schools and other institutions teaching theology.[253] Finally, academies developed well before the Roman empire, with the most famous being depicted almost two millenniums later by Raphael: the school of Athens. Medieval universities are distinguished from the academies of the classical age by the particular legal recognition (i.e. degree) they granted to those who completed the studies.[254]

V

[edit]
  • Valsalva maneuver: named after its inventor, the 17th century physician Antonio Maria Valsalva,[255] who firstly created it for testing of circulatory functions.
  • Vault (partially innovated): the firsts vaults were either built underground or required continuous walls of great thickness to resist their thrust. Romans perfected the statics of the intersecting barrel vault, overcoming these limitations and pioneering the use of vaults over halls of great dimensions.[256]
  • Vega (rocket): Italy had the lead in this program (65%), which produced an extremely fast vector to bring light payloads into orbit. First Launch was in 2012.
  • Venetian Carnival: carnival is an annual festival held in different places around the world, with an early example dating back in Venice to at least 1268. The most peculiar feature of Venice's celebration has laid in the extensive use of masks.[257] The rite of Carneval has obscure origins, possibly Roman.[258][259]
  • Vespa: in 1946 the Italian vehicle manufacturer Piaggio patented a "motorcycle of a rational complexity of organs and elements combined with a frame with mudguards and a casing covering the whole mechanical part". This design became one of the most popular scooters worldwide and is still in production.[260] The Vespa had an inedited load-bearing bodywork.[261]
  • Vibram: Vitale Bramani is credited with inventing the first rubber lug soles for shoes in 1937.
  • Vibram FiveFingers: a type of shoe invented in 1999 by Robert Fliri.
  • Viola (partially innovated): slightly larger than violin, is characterized by lower and deeper sound. Known fabrication started in northern Italy between 1530 and 1550.[262] It is speculated that the 'Viola da gamba' was invented in Valencia, Spain, to be later introduced in Italy during Renaissance: a valencian painting representing a viola dates back to 1475.[263] However, the viola is the oldest arched instrument, dating back, in different forms, to at least the 9th century.[264] Ascribing the true origin of this instrument to specific geographical locations leads to questionable results.[265]

W

[edit]
  • Watermark: this medieval innovation was first introduced in Fabriano, Italy, in 1282.
  • Welfare: the earliest form of welfare was the lex frumentaria instituted by the tribune Gaius Gracchus dating back to 122 B.C., a law that ordered Rome's government to supply its citizens with allotments of cheaply priced grain.
  • Galileo Hydrostatic Weighing Scale: a weight measuring device that uses hydraulic counter-force of a liquid, usually water or oil, to determine weight of an object under Archimedes' principle. Nowadays is mainly used in hydraulic types of weighbridges. Its functioning principles were first described by Galileo Galilei in 1586.

Z

[edit]

Medical discoveries and techniques

[edit]
  • Antibiotics:[268] Vincenzo Tiberio is considered by notable sources to be discoverer of antibiotics. By 1895 the Italian physician had already observed, scientifically reproduced and written a research on the antibiotic effect of "cellular products, soluble in water" extracted from Penicillium glaucum, Mucor mucedo and Aspergillus flavescens[25][269] and sterilized in the experimentation[270] (both in vitro and in vivo[271]). It can't be ruled out the possibility of his findings to have been taken as a starting point for later European researches.[272]
  • Artificial insemination: although previously theorized, only in 1784 the first artificial insemination in a viviparous animal[278] was officially performed and reported by the Italian physiologist Lazzaro Spallanzani.[279]
  • Black reaction: a silver staining technique which was first performed by Camillo Golgi. It helped the study of the nerve cells.[280]
  • Blood circulation: since Galen times it was believed that the internal human body circulation was separated in two different circuits: veins system, carrying food to the body, and arteries system, responsible for the flowing pneuma or "circulating air" in the body that was necessary to vital functions. Although many beliefs of Galen have been disproved by many Italian anatomists during Renaissance, the first who guessed blood did not mix in the heart and, instead, formed a single circulating system passing through the lungs, was the Spanish physician Miguel Serveto. However, his works were largely unknown for a long time as he was burned at the stake with his books for heresy by order of the city's governing council of Geneva, and it was an Italian anatomy professor, Realdo Colombo, who validated the intuitions of Servetus, proving that cardiac septum is impermeable to blood. He also spoke correctly about the existence of pulmonary circulation. Girolamo Fabrizi d’Acquapendente (1537–1619) was the first to study the valves of the veins, but it was Andrea Cesalpino the one who described the circulation of blood in the body. Cesalpino showed that the heart, not the liver, is the engine that physically pumps the blood into the vessels: starting from the arteries to capillaries, blood reaches the whole body, then it returns through the veins up to the heart. He used for the first time the term blood circulation and he demonstrated that in veins and arteries flows only blood, not pneuma, and that the passage of blood from arteries to veins through capillaries is due to difference of pressure. It remains famous his experiment of ligature of veins then resumed by William Harvey in order to prove the blood flow course in veins. Finally, Marcello Malpighi gave with his microscope observational proof of the exchange of blood from arteries to veins in capillaries.
  • Cerebrospinal fluid: the physician Domenico Cotugno is credited with the discovery of this fluid in 1774.
  • DDrna: a class of small non-coding RNAs (abbreviated DDRNAs) unveiled in a study by Fabrizio d'Adda di Fagagna, which play an important role in the activation of DDR, and in turn, as previously discovered by F. Fagagna, in the proliferation's inhibition typical of cellular aging.[281][282][283][284]
  • Gastric digestion (scientific proof): Edward Stevens for the first time performed an in vitro digestion. Spallanzani interpreted the process of digestion not simply as a mechanical process, but as one of actual solution, chemically mediated by the acid gastric juice of the stomach.[285][286][287]
  • Eustachian tube: Bartolomeo Eustachi extended the knowledge of the internal ear by rediscovering and describing correctly the tube that bears his name. He is the first who described the internal and anterior muscles of the malleus and the stapedius, and the complicated figure of the cochlea.
  • Fallopian tube: Gabriele Falloppio studied the reproductive organs in both sexes, and described the tube, which leads from the ovary to the uterus and now bears his name. He was the first to describe a condom (in his writings, a linen sheath wrapped around the penis), and he advocated the use of such sheaths to prevent syphilis.
  • Germ theory of disease (as a scientific theory):[84] physician Girolamo Fracastoro, scholar and poet, in 1546 was the first proposing that epidemic diseases are caused by transferable tiny particles or "spores" that could transmit infection by direct or indirect contact or even without contact over long distances. In his idea the "spores" of diseases may refer to either chemicals or living entities. He appears to have first used the Latin word fomes, meaning tinder, in the sense of infectious agent. He was the one to christen the syphilis disease with this name, from the name of a young boy Syphilius in Greek mythology, who was punished with an horrible disease for he had offended Apollo. Fracastoro also gave the first scientific description of typhus. The lunar crater Fracastorius is named after him.
  • Golgi apparatus: an organelle of the eukaryotic cell, discovered by Camillo Golgi in 1897.[288]
  • HIV Virus (co-discovered): the French Luc Montagnier and the Italian American[289][290] Robert Charles Gallo (US-born) are credited with discovering the virus causing the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).
  • Human Genome Diversity Project (or HGDP): a research project started by Stanford University's Morrison Institute in 1990s along with collaboration of scientists around the world.[291] It has been the result of many years of work by Luigi Cavalli-Sforza.
  • Insulin: artificial synthesis (contribution in discovery): the Italian Roberto Crea was part of a team of ten Genentech scientists publishing in 1979 a research that described the solution for synthetic insulin,[292] obtained through genes (coding the protein insulin A and B) that were inserted in Escherichia coli bacteria.[293] This technique made possible the mass production of insulin without relying on extraction from animals sources.
  • Liposuction: medical procedure invented by Dr Giorgio Fischer in 1974.
  • Malaria transmission: discovered by Amico Bignami to be originated by mosquitoes as infecting vectors.[294]
  • Mirror Neurons: being activated in a subject following either his own actions or the ones of another observed actor. These kinds of neurons were discovered by a team of Italian scientists led by Giacomo Rizzolatti.[295][296][297][298]
  • MS4A4A: discovered by an Italian research, this molecule plays a central role in the dialogue between Natural Killer and macrophage cells, controlling the tumoral metastatic diffusion.[299]
  • NGF or nerve growth factor: a protein involved primarily in the growth, as well as the maintenance, proliferation, and survival of nerve cells, whose absence leads to various diseases. Co-discovered in the early 1950s by Rita Levi-Montalcini in collaboration with Stanley Cohen. Today, NGF and its relatives are collectively designated as neurotrophins and are extensively studied for their role in mediating multiple biological phenomena.[300]
  • Octopamine: discovered by Vittorio Erspamer.[301][302]
  • Oncovirus: type of virus capable of causing cancers. The experiments led by Italian-American Renato Dulbecco and his group demonstrated that the genes of the reverse transcribing viruses infecting the cells, are inoculated into their chromosomes, with a behavior that alternates phases of inactivity and activity, linked to the formation of tumors.[303] Nobel prize was awarded to Renato Dulbecco, David Baltimore and Howard Temin.[304] In 1986 R. Dulbecco proposed the Human Genome Project to the international community,[305] with the subsequent project initiation by the Italian CNR (National Research Council).[306][307]
  • Occupational medicine: with his book on occupational diseases, De Morbis Artificum Diatriba (Diseases of Workers), Bernardino Ramazzini played a substantial role in the birth and development of Occupational medicine, outlining the health hazards of chemicals, dust, metals, repetitive or violent motions, odd postures, and other disease-causative agents encountered by workers in more than fifty occupations.[308]
  • Piezoelectric surgery: a surgery technique developed by Tomaso Vercellotti.[309]
  • Pneumothorax induction as an early method of treating tuberculosis: nowadays abandoned, proposed by Carlo Forlanini.[310][311]
  • Ricordi Chamber: doctor Camillo Ricordi -director of Diabetes Research Center (DRI), and Cell Transplant Center of University of Miami- became one of highest authorities in the cure of diabetes disease; he developed the first device able to isolate large quantities of insulin-producing cells from the human pancreas and to have successfully conducted the first series of pancreatic islets transplants capable of treating diabetes. His procedures have been used worldwide.
  • Robotic Hand Prosthesis (permanent implant on humans): the first prototype of an artificial, poly-articulated and sensitive hand was made in Italy, with a real-time decoding of the electrical signals sent from the brain to the muscles.[312][313][314][315][316]
  • Sarcoptes scabiei: discovered by Giacinto Cestoni and Giovanni Cosimo Bonomo (in 1687) and identified as the disease-causing agent of scabies. Bonomo also developed the cure: bathing in antiseptic.[317] Parasitology had other fundamental advancements thanks to the research of Francesco Redi,[317] pioneering the subsequent invalidation of spontaneous generation.[318]
  • SARS virus: an infectious disease discovered by Carlo Urbani; having been infected, he didn't live long enough to see how effective his early detection and intervention was in buying time and saving lives.[319]
  • Serotonin: discovered and synthesized by Italian chemist and pharmacologist Vittorio Erspamer.[320][321]
  • (Spinal) biomechanics: Giovanni A. Borelli is often considered father of biomechanics,[322][323] having calculated the forces necessary in the human body for reaching the equilibrium in the joints, long before the publishing of the Newtonian Laws. Borelli first understood that it is the motion to be magnified by the locomotor system's levers rather than force and consequently motion-producing muscles have to explicate greater force compared to the motion-resisting entities.[323] It is worth mentioning Borelli ideated what is probably the first rebreather.[324]
  • Stem cells as vectors for Gene Therapy: in 1992 doctor Claudio Bordignon, working at the Vita-Salute San Raffaele University in Milan, performed the first procedure of gene therapy using hematopoietic stem cells as vectors delivering genes intended to correct hereditary diseases.[325] He is known for having validated many successful gene therapy protocols targeting genetic and acquired disorders, such as leukaemias.[326]
  • Striated muscles: first differentiated from smooth muscles by Giorgio Baglivi in his monograph De fibra motrice. An exponent of iatrophysics, he isolated muscle fibers and studied them using a compound microscope, outlining the fundamental role played by the fiber as a structure. He also concluded that the heart muscle had spontaneous contraction, independent from other innervations.[327] His depiction of pulmonary edema is credited as its first proper clinical description. In addition, he proposed the introduction of specialized medical degrees.[327]
  • Strimvelis: the first ex-vivo stem cell gene therapy to treat patients with a very rare disease called ADA-SCID. The treatment was developed at San Raffaele Telethon Institute for Gene Therapy (SR-Tiget), in Milan. Strimvelis has been approved in Europe for the treatment of human patients.
  • Tafazzin: a protein discovered in 1996 by Italian scientists Silvia Bione, researcher at the time at the Institute of Genetics, Biochemistry and Evolution-CNR of Pavia.[328]
  • Transcranial direct-current stimulation (tDCS), with the first recorded clinical application by Giovanni Aldini in 1803.[329][330]
  • Rappuoli (innovated) vaccines: covering more than 150 patent families that have been registered since the mid-1990s by Rino Rappuoli, radically changing the vaccine production procedures used to immunize millions of people.[331]
    • Reverse vaccinology: a new method for making vaccines using the pathogen's sequenced genome, pioneered by R. Rappuoli[332] and the J. Craig Venter Institute.[333] Rappuoli has continued researching for even more advanced techniques.[334]
    • Recombinant pertussis vaccine (1992): with genetic editing and inactivation of the toxic gene in the chromosome of Pertussis bacterium, so that a non-toxic molecule is produced instead. The immune response was reported to improve compared to previous conventional technologies.[335][336]
  • CAd3-ZEBOV: an experimental Ebola virus vaccine developed by Swiss-Italian biotechnology company Okairos under the leadership of Dr Riccardo Cortese, in collaboration with American Nih. Okairos was later incorporated into GlaxoSmithKline.[337][338][339]
  • Trotula: Trota De Ruggiero (or Trocta) was a medical practitioner, probably a regular physician and university Professor who lived in the early 12th century in Salerno, near Naples. It seems she was daughter of one of the private Professors of the Schola Medica Salernitana, following her father's steps as a physician and teacher of medicine, and whose progeny continued this tradition as well. It is uncertain whether she was the first woman of the Medieval age to become a graduated physician in the Western World, but it is well known from various sources that at least 24 women practiced surgery in Neapolitan Area during Middle Ages.[citation needed] Trota left a collection of writings about the cure of women illnesses in a codex named after her, Trotula. It consists of three manuscripts, of which only the book called De curis mulierum (lit. "On Treatments for Women") is attributed to her, while the other two are works of different authors. The fact she wrote such an organic collection of remedies and cures is one of the evidences suggesting she was a regular graduate and not a simple practitioner. The Schola Medica Salernitana is considered "the oldest medical school of modern civilization" and "forerunner of modern University Medical Schools".[340]
  • VEGF: Napoleone Ferrara isolated and cloned the 'vascular endothelial growth factor' in 1989, while working at Genentech.[341][342][343] He is credited with developing a whole new class of anti-VEGF drugs for cancer treatment. He had a leading role in the development of ranibizumab, a drug intended for macular degeneration.[344]

Law, philosophy and humanities

[edit]
Main article: Culture of Italy
  • Baroque, firstly, as an architectural style developed in Rome, a result of doctrines adopted by the Catholic Church at the Council of Trent in 1545–63 in response to the Protestant Reformation; later, developing as an artistic, literary, and musical style.
  • Colony, from the Latin "colonia", indicating a Roman outpost established to secure conquered territory (sometimes situated near previous settlements[345]) and built for retired Roman legionaries. Colonies have been part of a Roman policy "whose wisdom only the future could fully reveal"-(Cedric A. Yeo, The Classical World).[346] Eventually the term denoted the highest status of a Roman city.[347] Many colonies survived the fall of Rome, with some becoming seminal European cities (e.g. London, Paris, Barcelona, Frankfurt).[348][349] The map of Roman infrastructures manifests a remarkable pattern similarity with European road density today: ancient cities and roads might have set the template for the next two thousand years of economic development.[350]
  • Cosmology of Giordano Bruno: he expanded the relatively new Copernican theory proposing for the first time the idea that the stars were distant suns (as bodies emitting energy) surrounded by their own planets (as bodies receiving and reflecting energy) orbiting around.[351][352][353] According to Steven Soter "[this] is arguably the greatest idea in the history of astronomy".[353] Giordano raised the possibility that these planets might foster life of their own, a philosophical position known as cosmic pluralism; he also claimed the universe is infinite and could have no "center". Barely suffering any form of religious authority, he was excommunicated by three different Christian cults: Catholics, Lutherans and Calvinists. In his positions Bruno identified God as a God-Nature, as a reality that in itself subsists immanent in the guise of the Infinite, since infinity is the fundamental characteristic of the divine.[354] For this reason and other beliefs considered heretic by the Catholic Church, such as negating Holy Trinity, he was dragged into court in Venice by local Inquisition, where he skillfully tried to defend himself stating that philosophers in their course of thoughts, according to "the natural light of intellect", can come to conflicting conclusions with the matters of faith, without having to be considered heretics. Roman Inquisition asked for his extradition to Rome, that was exceptionally granted by the Venetian Senate, and in Rome Bruno decided to not defend himself anymore and instead openly declare his beliefs. Found guilty of heresy, he was burned at the stake.[352]
  • Fermi paradox: arising from the high probability of existence of extraterrestrial civilizations and yet absence of alien contacts (given the great number of stars and planets of our galaxy and billions of years of time for hypothetical civilizations to develop space travel). Herbert York wrote in 1984 that Fermi "followed up with a series of calculations on the probability of earthlike planets, the probability of life given an earth, the probability of humans given life, the likely rise and duration of high technology, and so on. He concluded on the basis of such calculations that we ought to have been visited long ago and many times over".[355]
  • Criminology:
  • Fascism: illiberal political movement characterized as a form of far-right, authoritarian ultranationalism, created by politician and then dictator Benito Mussolini.
  • Futurism: an artistic and social movement born in Italy in the early 20th century, that glorified modernity, emphasized speed, technology, youth, impetuosity, and iconic objects of modernity and speed such as internal combustion engines, the car and the airplane as a form of art, an ideal of beauty and trendy absolute ambition for manly boldness. Filippo Tommaso Marinetti was the most prominent figure of the movement.
  • Humanism: a broad concept present in different cultures, derives its term from the Latin "humanitas", developed during Roman times (see Aulus Gellius).[359]
  • Latin alphabet, derived from the Greek alphabet; became the foundation of many languages worldwide, e.g. Neo-Latin languages. Currently more than 4.9 billion people rely on this alphabet.[5]
  • Machiavellianism: term denoting the political philosophy of Machiavelli, usually associated with forms of political realism. His most famous work, Il Principe, or The Prince, advised rulers to be ready to act in immoral ways in order to ensure the stability of the ruler in his state, so that he could rule effectively.[360][361]
  • Renaissance humanism: a cultural movement of rebirth in the study of classical antiquity, originating in Italy and then spreading across Western Europe (around 1300–1500). Humanists perceived themselves as a different kind of men opposed to those who lived in medieval age and who had another vision of the world, science and literature, rougher and incomplete if compared to the humanistic rediscovery of ancient classics, new perception of nature of things, and a new way of conceiving arts and beauty.[362]
  • Roman Law: together with the Napoleonic Law,[363][364] represents the foundation for the Civil Law,[31] now adopted by 150 countries.[30] Ancient Roman Law influenced to some extent the following medieval Common Law.[365]
    • Adoption, as legal process of parenting another person and permanently transferring all rights and responsibilities, along with filiation and full rights for the adopted of inheriting family name and family legacies. Institution of adoption was widely used by Roman Emperors to grant themselves an heir of male gender.
    • Habeas Corpus's origins, which can be traced back to the Roman Law.[366][367]
    • Marriage as a legal transaction between two peoples as stated by Roman law, sometimes involving the adoption of a prenuptial agreement.
    • Municipium, a social contract between municipes, the "duty holders," or citizens of the town: the munera were a communal obligation of the municipes in exchange for privileges and protections of citizenship.[368] The continuation in the Middle Ages of municipal institutes of Roman derivation constituted, together with the feudal fragmentation and the mechanisms of association of bourgeois origin, one of the determining factors for the formation of the communes. They developed as autonomous and recognized forms of city government, of an economic nature and, particularly in Italy, political.[369][370]
    • Proprietas: in ancient Roman legal system, indicates the sum of powers, rights and privileges, of a person on a thing. The seminal distinction between laws of property and obligation has characterized all Western Civilization.[371] Historically, Democritus justified private property because it was efficient. Aristotle added the argument of human nature. Etruscans and Romans perceived private property as the bond of the family with the ancestors and gods.[372]
  • Runic alphabet: the runic alphabet was based on Old Italic script.
  • Sonnet: type of poetry originating in Italy and highly developed by Francesco Petrarca.[373]
  • Scholasticism
    • (as a philosophy): a school of thought that employed a critical method of analysis and tried to reconcile the Christian faith with a system of rational thought (mainly derived from Greek philosophy), integrating classical philosophy as anticipating Christian theology. The intent of the scholastics was to develop a harmonious knowledge, integrating the Christian revelation with the philosophical systems of the Greek-Hellenistic world, as they were convinced of their compatibility, and to seek in the knowledge of the classics (mainly from great thinkers such as Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and Plotinus) a route able to raise the acceptance of Catholic dogmas. Scholasticism started developing from the works of the Roman Boethius[374] at the very onset of the Middle Ages.
    • (as a method of organizing studies): an organization of higher education present in ancient schools and universities. Clergymen and secular literates usually started their cursus studiorum in capitular schools enclosed by abbeys and monasteries, learning the arts of Trivium (grammar, logic and rhetoric) and then proceeding in the arts of Quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy). King Lothair I of Italy, nephew of emperor Charlemagne, created a system of high schools in strategic cities of his reign (Pavia, Ivrea, Turin, Cremona, Florence, Fermo, Verona, Vicenza, Forlì) in order to train skilled officials and bureaucrats. Italian merchant cities enhanced the schooling system by creating, around 1100, the "Scuole d'Abaco" (abacus learning schools) as professional institutes intended for the preparation of accountants, clerks, and any sort of trading specialists.
  • Theory of the two Suns: a political theory developed by Dante Alighieri, especially in the De Monarchia,[375] advocating the autonomy of the temporal power of the Holy Roman Emperor from the spiritual power of the Pope. Dante has been defined by William Franke "pioneer and prophet of Christian Secularism".[376]

Math and physical sciences

[edit]
Main article: Science and technology in Italy

Theories, Methods and Models

[edit]

Particles

[edit]

Astronomy

[edit]

Military innovations

[edit]

Strategies, methods and operations

[edit]
  • Fabian strategy, a delaying strategy (similar to guerrilla-warfare) first implemented by Quintus Fabius Maximus "Cunctator" in 217 BC.[481]
  • Italian fencing style: towards the end of '500, the Italian style, putting an emphasis on skills and speed instead of force, spread across Europe, with fencing being instituted as an art. Italians used a lighter weapon, the rapier, finely balanced and fabulous for attack, together with a style of fencing that was, at the same time, simple, controlled and agile. Italians discovered that using the point of the sword was more effective than relying on its edge. The early English fencing style was substituted by the continental one.[482]
  • Beretta: founded around 1526 by Bartolomeo Beretta, the Fabbrica d’Armi Pietro Beretta is the world's oldest manufacturing company[483] and can be considered the oldest industry;[16] during the Venetian-Turkish war (1570–73) Beretta produced 300 weapons per-day.[484][485] According to Marco Morin and Robert Held, well-known experts in military history, in the 16th century the Brescian valley became "an envied supplier of weapons on a global scale, which for the unsurpassed quality and strength of its products and above all of its gun barrels beat the great metallurgical centers of the time like Suhl, Augsburg and Nuremberg, in Germany": weapons were purchased by different Italian States, France and England.[484] In 1975, Beretta introduced the 9mm Model 92, which met worldwide diffusion as the self loading pistol most adopted by armies and law enforcement.[483]

Troops

[edit]
  • Frogmen: the first modern frogmen were the World War II Italian commando frogmen.
  • Marine infantry -as modern concept of armed troops for defending ships in combat, repel mutinies, and perform organized military landings- were created in vice-realm of Naples in 1537, by Spain King Carlos I, Compañías Viejas del Mar de Nápoles, and subsequently in Republic of Venice, Fanti da mar in 1550. Their heritage is keep by Italian elite troops San Marco Regiment.
  • Alpini: modern special forces intended for mountain warfare, created in 1872. The first 15 Alpini companies were officially established by Kingdom of Italy on 15 October.[486] The Italian example was soon followed by other countries having mountainous areas and thus France formed the Chasseurs des Alpes, in Germany the Alpenkorps were born, in Austro-Hungarian Empire the Landwehr and the Tyrolean hunters (Kaiserjäger); similar troops appeared in Czechoslovakia, Poland, Switzerland and Spain.[487] During WWI the Alps have been the major theater of mountain warfare (also called Alpine warfare).

Music

[edit]
Main article: Music of Italy

Notation and performance

[edit]
  • Modern music notation, theorized by Guido di Arezzo[12] in his work Micrologus de disciplina artis musicae (1026).
  • Guidonian solmization, assigning each note of the diatonic scale to a Solfège (or sol-fa) syllable. This represents a practical method for teaching sight-singing (singing music from written notation). Guido di Arezzo chose the syllables from the first syllable in each line of the Latin hymn Ut queant laxis (Hymn to John the Baptist): ut (or do), re, mi, fa, sol, la, si (subsequent convention).[488]
  • Ballet, invented and performed for the first time in Florence during the Italian Renaissance.[489]
  • Bel canto, a style that reigned supreme in Italian theaters, concert halls, and churches throughout the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.[490]
  • Cantata, (from Italian cantare, sing), originally designating a musical composition meant to be sung as opposed to be instrumentally performed (viz., sonata); now vaguely used for compositions featuring both voices and instruments. The early "cantata" have been written by Italians, and this word was used for the first time by the Italian composer Alessandro Grandi; there had been precursors (such as strophic arias, and late madrigals of Claudio Monteverdi).[491]
  • Libretto, grouping opera text; the earliest operas had their words printed in small books (lit. libretto) for commemoration (see also melodramma).[492]
  • Opera, the earliest (1597) being written by Ottavio Rinuccini, put to music by Jacopo Peri[493] and titled 'Dafne' (also see Neapolitan genre Opera Buffa).[492][494]
  • Oratorio, large musical composition for orchestra, choir and soloists,[495] usually narrative and sacred in nature; the first surviving being Rappresentazione di anima et di corpo (lit. The Representation of Soul and Body) by Emilio del Cavaliere, characterized by dramatic action and ballet. Later, Giacomo Carissimi's o. verged towards a more sober expression, adopting Old Testament text written in Latin.[496]
  • Symphony (origins): symphonies are written, usually orchestral, instrumental compositions. Their starting point can be located in Lombardy around 1730; in specific, they are to be found in Alessandro Scarlatti's opera overtures, showing a fast-slow-fast structure (Allegro-Adagio-Allegro) that later spread throughout Europe.[497][498] A second type of symphony, bipartite slow-fast, emerged from the compositions of Italian-French Giovanni Battista Lulli.[498] However, the etymology of the word is συμφωνία ("agreement or concord of sound"),[499] and the concept existed at least since the mid-16th century. Early orchestral compositions have been written by Giovanni Gabrieli, with the vivid Italian style being prosecuted by his pupil Heinrich Schütz.[500][499] Giovanni Battista Sammartini transformed the opera overtures in concerts of their own (e.g. Memet, 1732).[497] Joseph Haydn inserted a fourth movement (in the form of "Minuet dance") in the structure of A. Scarlatti.[498]

Contemporary Styles

[edit]

Food and Cuisine

[edit]
Main article: Italian cuisine
  • Carbonara: Italian dish from Rome.
  • Ravioli: a type of pasta in the form of a case with meat or cheese filling.[5]
  • Tortellini: ring shaped pasta that originates from Emilia-Romagna.
  • Macaroni: a dry pasta that has a narrow tube shape.
  • Gelato: the Renaissance alchemist Cosimo Ruggieri created the first gelato flavor at the Medici's court, in Florence: the 'fior di latte'. The architect Bernardo Buontalenti invented the 'egg cream' gelato.[501] In 1903 Italo Marchioni patended a machine for producing the gelato cone.[101]
  • Cannoli: Italian tubed shape shells of fried pastry dough.
  • Tiramisu: traditional Italian dessert featuring mascarpone cheese, chocolate shavings, and espresso.
  • Espresso: a coffee-brewing method.
  • Nutella, spread made from cocoa, hazelnuts and palm oil; created by the Ferrero firm in 1964.
  • Mozzarella: southern Italian cheese made from Italian buffalo's milk by the pasta filata method.
  • Marinara sauce: tomato sauce made with tomatoes, garlic, herbs and onions.
  • Ciabatta: Italian white bread made from wheat flour, water, salt, yeast, and olive oil.
  • Breadstick: long and thin sticks of crisp of dry baked bread that was invented in Italy.
  • Risotto: Northern Italian rice dish.
  • Broccoli: broccoli resulted from breeding of landrace Brassica crops in the northern Mediterranean starting in about the sixth century BCE. Broccoli has its origins in primitive cultivars grown in the Roman Empire and was most likely improved via artificial selection in the southern Italian Peninsula or in Sicily.
  • Pasta filata: a technique in the manufacture of a family of Italian cheeses.

Sport

[edit]
Main article: Sport in Italy

Geography

[edit]

The following is an extract of the most noteworthy geographical discoveries, partially or totally Italian:

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Innocenzi, Plinio (27 June 2018). The Innovators Behind Leonardo: The True Story of the Scientific and Technological Renaissance. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-90449-8.
  2. ^ "Alessandro Cruto's incandescent light bulb — Italianmedia". ilglobo.com.au. Retrieved 16 December 2019.
  3. ^ "Italy | Facts, Geography, & History". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 24 December 2019. Italian history begins with the Etruscans
  4. ^ a b "Codex". www.ucl.ac.uk. Retrieved 22 October 2019. The codex may have been more a Roman innovation than a Greek or Eastern Mediterranean development
  5. ^ a b "The World's Most Popular Writing Scripts". WorldAtlas. 23 October 2019. Retrieved 28 October 2019.
  6. ^ a b "Julian calendar | History & Difference from Gregorian Calendar". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 22 October 2019.
  7. ^ "Espacenet - Original document". worldwide.espacenet.com. Retrieved 22 October 2019.
  8. ^ a b McGrath, Matt (4 July 2017). "Scientists solve Roman concrete puzzle". Retrieved 22 October 2019.
  9. ^ "ingegneria nell'Enciclopedia Treccani". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 28 November 2019. Translation from source (not lit.) The oldest Italian document in which the term 'engineer' appears [dates back] [...] in Genoa, 19 April 1195 [...] The first printed engineering book is Italian [...]. [Comparable with] the French Jacques Besson and the Germans Georg Agricola and Zeising, are Agostino Ramelli, Bonaiuto Lorini, Fausto Veranzio, Mariano Zonca, Famiano Strada, Giovanni Branca. The Italian engineer is often called abroad as a consultant ...
  10. ^ "List of 5 Greatest Feats of Roman Engineering - History Lists". historylists.org. Retrieved 28 October 2019.
  11. ^ Eschner, Kat. "The Man Who Invented Nitroglycerin Was Horrified By Dynamite". Smithsonian. Retrieved 23 October 2019.
  12. ^ a b "Why do we use Italian words in music notation?". Classic FM. Retrieved 22 October 2019.
  13. ^ "GALILEO'S TELESCOPE - Galileo, the Instrument-Maker". brunelleschi.imss.fi.it. Retrieved 22 October 2019.
  14. ^ "Geometry in Art & Architecture Unit 11". math.dartmouth.edu. Retrieved 22 October 2019.
  15. ^ "Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus | Roman statesman and commander". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 28 October 2019. Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, byname Cunctator, [...] Roman military commander and statesman whose cautious delaying tactics (whence the nickname "Cunctator," meaning "delayer")...
  16. ^ a b Wilson, Robert L. (10 November 2015). The World of Beretta: An International Legend. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-5107-0930-0. Introductory summary Fabbrica d'Armi Pietro Beretta, S.p.A., the oldest industrial firm and the oldest gunmaker in the world. From source Italy's importance in the history of art, government, politics, warfare, and sport is recognized worldwide. [...] the advancement of technology [is] no less significant. No area of the world [played] a greater role in the evolution of firearms than the ancient Italian valley region known as Val Trompia
  17. ^ a b "Cei-Rigotti". Forgotten Weapons. 24 October 2012. Retrieved 22 October 2019. Amerigo Cei-Rigotti was a major in the Italian Bersaglieri (light infantry) in 1900, when his innovative self-loading rifle design was first introduced. Unlike many or the very early semiauto rifle designs, the Cei-Rigotti is a light, handy, and pretty compact rifle.
  18. ^ "Lùppis, Giovanni Battista in "Enciclopedia Italiana"". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 22 October 2019. Translation creator of the torpedo; he realized a prototype, which he named salvacoste.
  19. ^ "Press Release - Congressman Vito J. Fossella - New York, 13th Congressional District". 24 January 2005. Archived from the original on 24 January 2005. Retrieved 22 October 2019.
  20. ^ Fossella, Vito (11 June 2002). "Text - H.Res.269 - 107th Congress (2001-2002): Expressing the sense of the House of Representatives to honor the life and achievements of 19th Century Italian-American inventor Antonio Meucci, and his work in the invention of the telephone". www.congress.gov. Retrieved 22 October 2019.
  21. ^ a b "Marconi, Guglielmo in "Dizionario Biografico"". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 22 October 2019.
  22. ^ a b "Battery - Development of batteries". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 22 October 2019.
  23. ^ a b "Enrico Fermi, architect of the nuclear age, dies - Nov 28, 1954 - HISTORY.com". 17 November 2015. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 22 October 2019.
  24. ^ a b "Nuclear Power" (PDF).
  25. ^ a b "Tiberio, l'italiano che scoprì la penicillina prima di Fleming". Focus.it. Retrieved 22 October 2019.
  26. ^ a b "55 anni fa il Nobel a Giulio Natta, papà della plastica - Scienza & Tecnica". ANSA.it (in Italian). 10 December 2018. Retrieved 22 October 2019.
  27. ^ a b Ketley, A. D.; Werber, F. X. (14 August 1964). "Stereospecific Polymerization: A revolution in polymer synthesis has occurred in the last decade". Science. 145 (3633): 667–673. doi:10.1126/science.145.3633.667. PMID 14163799. S2CID 21604946.
  28. ^ a b "Olivetti Programma 101: at the origins of the Personal Computer". Inexhibit. Retrieved 22 October 2019.
  29. ^ a b "The_MOS_Silicon_Gate_Technology_and_the_First_Microprocessors" (PDF). intel4004.com.
  30. ^ a b "What is the Difference Between Common Law and Civil Law?". onlinelaw.wustl.edu. 28 January 2014.
  31. ^ a b G. Hall, Eamonn (25 May 2019). "the-contribution-of-roman-law-to-modern-legal-systems".
  32. ^ "Galileo". Biography. Retrieved 23 October 2019.
  33. ^ a b Pacioli, Luca (1523). Summa de arithmetica, geometria, proportioni et proportionalità. Paganino de Paganini.
  34. ^ a b "Tartaglia, Niccolo in "Il Contributo italiano alla storia del Pensiero: Scienze"". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 23 October 2019.
  35. ^ a b "Bonaventura Cavalieri (1598-1647)". www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk. Retrieved 23 October 2019.
  36. ^ a b Ricci and Levi-Civita's Tensor Analysis Paper. Math Sci Press. 1975.
  37. ^ a b "Lagrange, Giuseppe Luigi nel Dizionario Biografico Treccani". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 23 October 2019.
  38. ^ "formalismo lagrangiano". www.treccani.it.
  39. ^ Mario Calderara, Commander Calderara Glances Backward and Ahead, U.S. Air Services, Volume 15, Air Service Publishing Company, September 1930, page 38
  40. ^ "Calderara, Mario in Dizionario Biografico". www.treccani.it.
  41. ^ Ronchi, Vasco (1970). "Amici, Giovan Battista". Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 1. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 135-137. ISBN 0-684-10114-9.
  42. ^ Padova, Università di (31 May 2012). "Teatro Anatomico". Università degli studi di Padova (in Italian). Retrieved 3 November 2019.
  43. ^ Invention of the Meteorological Instruments, W.E. Knowles Middleton, Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, 1969
  44. ^ Edward D."Banking During the Middle Ages" Encyclopedia of Medieval World, vol.1.
  45. ^ Giuseppe Felloni and Guido Laura, "Genoa and the history of finance: A series of firsts?" 9 November 2004, ISBN 88-87822-16-6
  46. ^ "Barometers | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 16 December 2019.
  47. ^ Bellis, Mary. Alessandro Volta - Biography of Alessandro Volta - Stored Electricity and the First Battery. About.com. Retrieved 7 August 2008.
  48. ^ Robert Routledge, A popular history of science, G. Routledge and Sons, ISBN 0-415-38381-1
  49. ^ "Olivetti Programma 101 Electronic Calculator". The Old Calculator Web Museum. Though considered by many to be the first monolithic desktop stored-program programmable electronic calculator, this distinction is questionable. It appears that the Mathatronics Mathatron calculator preceeded [sic] the Programma 101 to market.
  50. ^ [1], Olivetti Programma 101 "Perottina", 18 December 2013.
  51. ^ "Smith College Museum of Ancient Inventions: Candles". www.smith.edu. Retrieved 5 November 2019.
  52. ^ Adler, Michael H. (1973) The writing machine (London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd.)
  53. ^ "How Casinos Work". HowStuffWorks. 1 May 2007. Retrieved 3 November 2019.
  54. ^ "The Gregorian Calendar". www.timeanddate.com. Retrieved 5 November 2019.
  55. ^ "Violoncello by Andrea Amati, Cremona, Mid-16th Century". collections.nmmusd.org. Retrieved 5 November 2019.
  56. ^ Reti, Ladislao; Di Giorgio Martini, Francesco (Summer 1963). "Francesco di Giorgio (Armani) Martini's Treatise on Engineering and Its Plagiarists". Technology and Culture. 4 (3): 287–298 (290). doi:10.2307/3100858. JSTOR 3100858. S2CID 113038460.
  57. ^ Roberts, Colin H; Skeat, TC (1983). The Birth of the Codex. London: British Academy. pp. 15–22. ISBN 0-19-726061-6.
  58. ^ "Ricco Curriculum Vitae" (PDF).
  59. ^ "Fiat's loss was Bosch's gain". Automotive News. 17 May 2004. Retrieved 14 November 2019.
  60. ^ a b Zaffino, Valentina. "Giordano Bruno and the Proportional Eight Spike Compass". proportional compasses have, on their hands, various proportional scales [...] There are three kinds: with crossed hands, similar to the reduction compass such as the Commandino or Bürgi one; with eight spikes, such as the Mordente one; with flat hands, such as Galileo's compass.
  61. ^ "COMMANDINO, Federico in "Dizionario Biografico"". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 10 January 2020.
  62. ^ "The Medici and science". brunelleschi.imss.fi.it. Retrieved 10 January 2020.
  63. ^ a b Witze, Alexandra (3 July 2017). "Seawater is the secret to long-lasting Roman concrete". Nature News. doi:10.1038/nature.2017.22231.
  64. ^ Ahmad, Zahra (30 June 2017). "Why modern mortar crumbles, but Roman concrete lasts millennia". Science | AAAS. Retrieved 22 October 2019.
  65. ^ "Da quando c'è l'abitudine di gettare i coriandoli a Carnevale?". Treccani, l'Enciclopedia italiana (in Italian). Retrieved 28 November 2019.
  66. ^ Marrison, Richard (27 September 2020). "Top 20 Ancient Roman Inventions". Retrieved 12 July 2021.
  67. ^ "10 Ancient Roman Inventions That Will Surprise You". www.thecollector.com. 4 August 2020. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
  68. ^ The inventions that changed the world, Reader's Digest (1982) [Portuguese edition of 1983]
  69. ^ Zwierzchowski, Jaroslaw (2017). "Design type air engine Di Pietro". EPJ Web of Conferences. 143: 02149. Bibcode:2017EPJWC.14302149Z. doi:10.1051/epjconf/201714302149. The article presents a pneumatic engine constructed by Angelo Di Pietro. [...] . A directional valve is a key element of the control system. The valve functions as a camshaft distributing air to particular engine chambers. The construction designed by Angelo Di Pietro is modern and innovative. A pneumatic engine requires low pressure to start rotary movement. [...] According to his assumptions, this engine has 94.5% efficiency, and constant high torque. Additionally, this engine does not generate vibrations and has a very low friction, allowing the engine to operate at a low supply pressure of only 1 PSI (approx. 0.07 bar)
  70. ^ "Environmentally Friendly, Engine, Invention | Melbourne". www.engineair.com.au. Retrieved 20 December 2019.
  71. ^ "Pumping up the silent engine". GE Reports. 14 September 2013. Retrieved 20 December 2019. An invention that would have earned a nod from Da Vinci himself, Angelo's engine [...] virtually eliminates vibration, internal wear and friction.
  72. ^ Hanlon, Mike (15 September 2004). "Significant new rotary engine design runs on compressed air". New Atlas. Retrieved 20 December 2019. There is no other motor as efficient as the Di Pietro Rotary Air Engine. It is 100% more efficient than any other air powered engine built to date and its high torque makes it the first air engine suitable for mobile applications.
  73. ^ Ronchi, Vasco (1970). "Amici, Giovan Battista". Dictionary of Scientific Biography. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. ISBN 0-684-10114-9.
  74. ^ Larry E. Ashley, Pierce Piano Atlas, 12th edition, Larry E. Ashley Publisher, Albuquerque, NM U.S.A., 2008, p.58.
  75. ^ Beckmann, Johann (1846). A History of Inventions, Discoveries, and Origins. Henry G. Bohn. ISBN 9781508445098. Retrieved 23 March 2014.
  76. ^ "Paciòli, Luca nell'Enciclopedia Treccani". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 17 November 2019.
  77. ^ Weiss RB (December 1992). "The anthracyclines: will we ever find a better doxorubicin?". Seminars in Oncology. 19 (6): 670–86. PMID 1462166.
  78. ^ "D-shape".
  79. ^ Wells, Frederick V.; Billot, Marcel (1981). Perfumery Technology. Art, science, industry. Chichester: Horwood Books. pp. 25, 278. ISBN 0-85312-301-2
  80. ^ Mohler, James B. (1969). Electroplating and Related Processes. Chemical Publishing Co. ISBN 0-8206-0037-7.
  81. ^ "BRUGNATELLI, Luigi Valentino in "Dizionario Biografico"". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 24 November 2019.
  82. ^ "Treccani in "Il Libro dell'Anno"". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 25 November 2019.
  83. ^ "enciclopedia in "Dizionario di Storia"". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 25 November 2019.
  84. ^ a b "Girolamo Fracastoro | Italian physician". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 19 November 2019.
  85. ^ On Contagion, Contagious Diseases and Their Cure (1546) by Girolamo Fracastoro (1478-1553)
  86. ^ "Bollettino delle privative industriali del Regno d’Italia", 2nd Series, Volume 15, Year 1884, pages 635 – 655
  87. ^ Pendergrast, Mark (2001) [1999]. Uncommon Grounds: The History of Coffee and How It Transformed Our World. London: Texere. p. 218. ISBN 1-58799-088-1.
  88. ^ a b c D'Agostino, Alberto (25 March 2015). Estimo Immobiliare Urbano ed Elementi di Economia: Con valutazione economico-finanziaria degli investimenti per la valorizzazione e trasformazione delle opere pubbliche (in Italian). Società Editrice Esculapio. pp. 284–285. ISBN 978-88-7488-849-8.
  89. ^ Sella, Domenico (1980). "Fisco e societa' nella Lombardia del Cinquecento". Studi Storici. 21 (4): 915–920. JSTOR 20564854.
  90. ^ "Volta Alessandro". scienzapertutti.infn.it (in Italian). Retrieved 14 November 2019.
  91. ^ "Volta" (PDF). matematica.unibocconi.it.
  92. ^ "occhiali nell'Enciclopedia Treccani". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 9 November 2019.
  93. ^ "Venice Film Festival". Britannica.com. Retrieved 23 November 2012.
  94. ^ "Forlanini, Enrico nell'Enciclopedia Treccani". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 20 November 2019.
  95. ^ "Dettaglio Soggetto Produttore - Imprese". www.imprese.san.beniculturali.it. Retrieved 20 November 2019.
  96. ^ "13 ottobre 1930: un elicottero italiano da record - Il Sole 24 ORE". st.ilsole24ore.com. Retrieved 20 November 2019.
  97. ^ "Biografie - Corradino D'Ascanio". www.imss.fi.it. Retrieved 20 November 2019.
  98. ^ "The Firefighters of Ancient Rome". MQ Ancient History: City of Rome Blog. Retrieved 11 July 2021.
  99. ^ Gould, Richard A. (29 April 2011). Archaeology and the Social History of Ships. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781139498166. Retrieved 8 August 2014.
  100. ^ Stornello, Olga (October 2018). "Francesco Procopio dei Coltelli: the man who invented gelato". Sicilian Post. Translated by Raciti, Francesco. Retrieved 3 February 2019.
  101. ^ a b "Chi ha inventato il cono gelato?". Il Post (in Italian). 7 June 2013. Retrieved 6 November 2019.
  102. ^ "Reserve Bank of India". 6 December 2014. Archived from the original on 6 December 2014. Retrieved 5 November 2019.
  103. ^ INCLIMONA, ETTORE (1913). "Le origini del Banco giro". Giornale degli Economisti e Rivista di Statistica. 46 (Anno 24) (2): 144–156. JSTOR 23223972.
  104. ^ "depositario del banco giro". www.veneziamuseo.it. Retrieved 5 November 2019.
  105. ^ "A History of Geothermal Energy in America". Energy.gov. Retrieved 20 December 2019. Prince Piero Ginori Conti invents the first geothermal power plant at the Larderello dry steam field in Tuscany, Italy.
  106. ^ "200 years of geothermal industry: clean energy and sustainability". www.enel.com. 18 May 2018. Retrieved 20 December 2019. [Piero Ginori Conti] idea was to exploit geothermal vapour as a source of energy. On 4 July 1904 he used a simple generator consisting of a dynamo running off geothermal heat to successfully turn on five light bulbs.
  107. ^ "Geothermal Energy History". Conserve Energy Future. 20 January 2013. Retrieved 20 December 2019.
  108. ^ Rubino, Lorenzo (1 June 2015). "Geotermico a Zero Emissioni: Invenzione tutta Italiana" [Zero-emission geothermal: All-Italian invention]. Close-up Building Engineering (in Italian). Retrieved 20 December 2019. Translation In 1827, in Larderello, a group of engineers and scientists exploited the steam contained in a geyser for industrial purposes (boric acid extraction)
  109. ^ Calimani, Riccardo. 1987. The Ghetto of Venice. New York: M. Evans & Co. ISBN 0871314843. pp. 129–32.
  110. ^ "Città di Venezia - Turismo - Manifestazioni e feste - Regata Storica - Le barche". 3 March 2010. Archived from the original on 3 March 2010. Retrieved 20 November 2019.
  111. ^ "Naval warfare". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 26 July 2021.
  112. ^ [2] Treccani, L'Enciclopedia Italiana, Erbario.
  113. ^ Emiliani, Cesare (1993). "Correspondence – Calendar Reform". Nature. 366 (6457): 716. Bibcode:1993Natur.366..716E. doi:10.1038/366716b0. S2CID 4346154.
  114. ^ Emiliani, Cesare (1994). "Calendar reform for the year 2000". Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union. 75 (19): 218. Bibcode:1994EOSTr..75..218E. doi:10.1029/94EO00895.
  115. ^ Massimo Marchiori, "The Quest for Correct Information on the Web: Hyper Search Engines", Proceedings of the Sixth International World Wide Web Conference (WWW6), 1997.
  116. ^ Sergey Brin and Lawrence Page, "The anatomy of a large-scale hypertextual Web search engine", Proceedings of the Seventh International World Wide Web Conference (WWW7), 1998.
  117. ^ Alternating currents of electricity: their generation, measurement, distribution, and application by Gisbert Kapp, William Stanley, Jr. Johnston, 1893. Page 140. [cf., This direction has been first indicated by Professor Galileo Ferraris, of Turin, some six years ago. Quite independent of Ferraris, the same discovery was also made by Nikola Tesla, of New York; and since the practical importance of the discovery has been recognized, quite a host of original discoverers have come forward, each claiming to be the first.]
  118. ^ Larned, J. N., & Reiley, A. C. (1901). History for ready reference: From the best historians, biographers, and specialists; their own words in a complete system of history. Springfield, Mass: The C.A. Nichols Co.. Page 440. [cf., At about the same time [1888], Galileo Ferraris, in Italy, and Nikola Tesla, in the United States, brought out motors operating by systems of alternating currents displaced from one another in phase by definite amounts and producing what is known as the rotating magnetic field.]
  119. ^ The Electrical engineer. (1888). London: Biggs & Co. Pg., 239. [cf., "[...] new application of the alternating current in the production of rotary motion was made known almost simultaneously by two experimenters, Nikola Tesla and Galileo Ferraris, and the subject has attracted general attention from the fact that no commutator or connection of any kind with the armature was required."]
  120. ^ Galileo Ferraris, "Electromagnetic rotation with an alternating current," Electrican, Vol 36 [1885]. pg 360-75.
  121. ^ "AC Power History". edisontechcenter.org.
  122. ^ Neidhöfer, Gerhard (2007). "Early Three-Phase Power (History)". IEEE Power and Energy Magazine. Vol. 5, no. 5. IEEE Power & Energy Society. pp. 88–100. doi:10.1109/MPE.2007.904752.
  123. ^ "Two-Phase Induction Motor" Archived 2012-11-18 at the Wayback Machine (2011), The Case Files: Nikola Tesla, The Franklin Institute.
  124. ^ "The Intel 4004 Home". www.intel4004.com.
  125. ^ "Obama rewards digital camera, microprocessor inventors". phys.org. Retrieved 19 November 2019.
  126. ^ "Italic | typeface". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 29 October 2019.
  127. ^ "Italia d' America - la Repubblica.it". Archivio - la Repubblica.it (in Italian). 27 December 2009. Retrieved 5 November 2019.
  128. ^ "History of Jacuzzi®: how we developed our revolutionary water pump system". en.jacuzzi.eu. Retrieved 25 November 2019.
  129. ^ "Denim jeans originated in Italy, not France, art historian claims - Telegraph". fashion.telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 20 November 2019.
  130. ^ "History of Jeans - Origin of Denim Jeans". www.historyofjeans.com. Retrieved 20 November 2019.
  131. ^ Kroll, O. (1968). The Clarinet. New York, NY: Taplinger Publishing Company.
  132. ^ "Alessandro Cruto | Torino Scienza". www.torinoscienza.it (in Italian). Retrieved 30 October 2019.
  133. ^ "mandolino nell'Enciclopedia Treccani". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 9 November 2019.
  134. ^ "Bio-plastics: Letting the Planet Breathe". www.wipo.int. Retrieved 19 December 2019.
  135. ^ lepitreb (30 December 2013). "Mater-Bi® Biopolymers". Bioplastics News. Retrieved 19 December 2019.
  136. ^ Nainggolan, Hamonangan; Gea, Saharman; Bilotti, Emiliano; Peijs, Ton; Hutagalung, Sabar D. (23 May 2013). "Mechanical and thermal properties of bacterial-cellulose-fibre-reinforced Mater-Bi® bionanocomposite". Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology. 4 (1): 325–329. doi:10.3762/bjnano.4.37. PMC 3678394. PMID 23766957.
  137. ^ Bastioli, Catia (3 January 1998). "Properties and applications of Mater-Bi starch-based materials". Polymer Degradation and Stability. Biodegradable Polymers and Macromolecules. 59 (1): 263–272. doi:10.1016/S0141-3910(97)00156-0.
  138. ^ A. Mark Smith, From Sight to Light: The Passage from Ancient to Modern Optics, University of Chicago Press - 2014, page 387
  139. ^ Daniel J. Boorstin, The Discoverers, Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group - 2011, page 327
  140. ^ Raymond J. Seeger, Men of Physics: Galileo Galilei, His Life and His Works, Elsevier – 2016, p. 24
  141. ^ J. William Rosenthal, Spectacles and Other Vision Aids: A History and Guide to Collecting, Norman Publishing, 1996, page 391
  142. ^ uoregon.edu, Galileo Galilei (Excerpt from the Encyclopedia Britannica)
  143. ^ Gould, Stephen Jay (2000). "Chapter 2: The Sharp-Eyed Lynx, Outfoxed by Nature". The Lying Stones of Marrakech: Penultimate Reflections in Natural History. New York: Harmony. ISBN 978-0-224-05044-9.
  144. ^ "Lock | waterway". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 12 January 2020. The mitred canal gate, [...] may have been invented by Leonardo da Vinci for the San Marco Lock in Milan...
  145. ^ "Sketch-of-a-miter-gate-by-Leonardo-Da-Vinci-ca-1490-Codex-Atlanticus". researchgate.net.
  146. ^ "Company Story". www.bialetti.it. Retrieved 5 November 2019.
  147. ^ a b "Enrico Bernardi, l'italiano che inventò l'automobile". lanostrastoria.corriere.it (in Italian). Retrieved 20 November 2019.
  148. ^ Fermi, Enrico (1930). "Enrico Bernardi in Enciclopedia Treccani". treccani.it. nel 1893 montò il motore a benzina [...] su una ruota di propulsione per una bicicletta ordinaria, realizzando così la prima motocicletta. Translatation in 1893 he mounted the petrol engine [...] on a propulsion wheel for an ordinary bicycle, thus realizing the first motorcycle.
  149. ^ a b Lucendo, Jorge (29 July 2019). Cars of Legend: First Cars of History. Jorge Lucendo.
  150. ^ "Bernardi Enrico, 1882, Motrice Pia". Museo Nicolis (in Italian). 4 February 2016. Retrieved 23 November 2019.
  151. ^ "Museo dell'automobile". www.museoauto.it. Retrieved 23 November 2019.
  152. ^ Musmann, Hans Georg (2006). "Genesis of the MP3 Audio Coding Standard" (PDF). Indiana University-Purdue University Fort Wayne. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 January 2012. Retrieved 23 October 2019.
  153. ^ Picazzi, Valeria. "Thesis on: "Il progetto di telescopio a tasselli di Guido Horn d'Arturo: forefather of the new generation multi-mirror telescopes"" (PDF). lelucidihorn.it.
  154. ^ "presepe nell'Enciclopedia Treccani". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 19 December 2019.
  155. ^ "Gazette | periodical". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 16 December 2019.
  156. ^ Eschner, Kat. "The Man Who Invented Nitroglycerin Was Horrified By Dynamite". Smithsonian. Retrieved 27 October 2019.
  157. ^ Roeback, Tacuma. "Was Enrico Fermi Really the "Father of the Nuclear Age"?". Smithsonian. Retrieved 27 October 2019.
  158. ^ "Nuclear fission - Energy Education". energyeducation.ca. Retrieved 27 October 2019.
  159. ^ [3], Encyclopædia Britannica, "Opera (music)".
  160. ^ "Paddle Boat". Leonardo da Vinci Exhibit: the Models. Museum of Science and Industry (Chicago). 2006. Archived from the original on 13 November 2015. Retrieved 17 September 2015.
  161. ^ Homans, Isaac Smith; Dana, William B. (1862). "Recent Italian inventions". Merchants' Magazine and Commercial Review. Vol. 46. F. Hunt. p. 194. Retrieved 23 March 2014.
  162. ^ "Giovani Caselli – Pantelegraph (and fax) inventor". Fax Authority. Retrieved 27 October 2019.
  163. ^ "The History of pasta". www.internationalpasta.org. Retrieved 20 December 2019.
  164. ^ "PASTA ALIMENTARE in "Enciclopedia Italiana"". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 20 December 2019.
  165. ^ Cosmo, Serena (24 October 2017). The Ultimate Pasta and Noodle Cookbook. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-60433-733-4.
  166. ^ https://www.dececco.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/32054_LENTA-ESSICCAZIONE-PER-UNA-PASTA-DI-QUALITA-SUPERIORE-1.pdf "Translation from source: in 1889, the Founder of De Cecco was one of the first inventors of pasta drying systems hygienically acceptable and independent from the climatic conditions of the production area."
  167. ^ "Book Excerptise: A History of Beer and Brewing by Ian Spencer Hornsey". www.cse.iitk.ac.in. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
  168. ^ "Lazzaro Spallanzani | Italian physiologist". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
  169. ^ [4], NYT, "Amazing Leonardo da Vinci Inventions".
  170. ^ Alberti, Leon Battista. Della Pittura. 1435.
  171. ^ "Piano | musical instrument". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 9 November 2019.
  172. ^ The War Office (UK): Textbook of Small Arms (1929), page 86. H.M. Stationery Office (UK), 1929
  173. ^ "PISTOLA in "Enciclopedia Italiana"". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 22 October 2019.
  174. ^ "Il simbolo del Far West". daily.wired.it (in Italian). Retrieved 19 December 2019.
  175. ^ "10 invenzioni "italiane" attribuite ad altri - Focus.it". www.focus.it. Retrieved 19 December 2019.
  176. ^ Woodruff, R. R. (2 July 2017). Blue Blood Revenge. Page Publishing Inc. ISBN 978-1-64027-583-6.
  177. ^ Publications, Adda247. Competition Power May 2019 Monthly eBook (English ed.). Adda247 Publications.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  178. ^ Hughes, Holly (8 April 2009). Frommer's 500 Places for Food and Wine Lovers. John Wiley & Sons. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-470-48064-9. Retrieved 23 March 2014.
  179. ^ The Science Book. Dorling Kindersley Limited. 1 August 2014. ISBN 9780241185100.
  180. ^ "Breve storia del cambio della bici". Bikeitalia.it (in Italian). Retrieved 19 December 2019. Translation The real revolution comes with the Campagnolo Gran Sport gearbox, which became a milestone in technical evolution. [...] Also for the first time the front derailleur appeared
  181. ^ "PBS: Tesla - Master of Lightning: Who Invented Radio?". www.pbs.org. Retrieved 2 November 2019. The Marconi Company was suing the United States Government for use of its patents [...]. The action [was avoided] by restoring the priority of Tesla's patent over Marconi.
  182. ^ "radiogoniometro in "Dizionario delle Scienze Fisiche"". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 22 December 2019.
  183. ^ "Bellini-Tosi MF/DF". www.airwaysmuseum.com. Retrieved 22 December 2019. in 1906 [...] Dr Ettore Bellini and Captain Tosi, produced a direction-finding system which [...] in principle remained in use for over 70 years.
  184. ^ a b "radiogoniometro nell'Enciclopedia Treccani". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 22 December 2019. Translation [Radiogoniometer] is the oldest and one of the most important instruments for radio-assisted navigation. [...]. Conceived by A. Artom (1901), also known by the name of r. Bellini-Tosi (1908).
  185. ^ l'Umbria, Deputazione di storia patria per (1942). Bollettino della Deputazione di storia patria per l'Umbria (in Italian). Deputazione di storia patria per lU̓mbria.
  186. ^ "PIONIERI ITALIANI DELLA RADIOTECNICA" [Italian pioneers of radio technology] (PDF). www.arifidenza.it. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 December 2019.
  187. ^ Bellini, E.; Tosi, A. (1 December 1907). "A Directive System of Wireless Telegraphy". Proceedings of the Physical Society of London. 21 (1): 305–328. Bibcode:1907PPSL...21..305B. doi:10.1088/1478-7814/21/1/321. In order to be able to transmit and receive to or from any direction whatsoever, without having to turn the aerial, or having recourse to a large number of aerials in fixed positions, the aerials were built up of two equal closed oscillatory circuits, vertically placed and mutually perpendicular. This aerial system is connected up to special instruments for transmission and reception which the authors have called "Radiogoniometers." [...]. On this [original] method, by merely rotating a small coil of wire on the table, a fixed aerial directive system of any size was made to do what could otherwise only be done by turning the whole system of aerial wires in azimuth. The essence of the system was the piece of apparatus styled the radiogoniometer, which, by causing appropriate component radiation from two fixed wire triangles set at right angles, brought about a resultant radiation in any direction desired [...] so that if it can be used, as stated by the Authors, accurately to about one degree of arc, the radiogoniometer is the practical equivalent of 360 bent antennae.
  188. ^ Multimedia, THETIS Srl Grafica-. "Libreria Antiquaria Gonnelli - Casa d'Aste - Gonnelli Casa d'Aste". Libreria Antiquaria Gonnelli - Casa d'Aste - Gonnelli Casa d'Aste. Retrieved 22 December 2019. Artom (1867-1927) was a scientist, inventor of the directional radio antenna and radiogoniometer
  189. ^ "Brev. Lefaucheux 1858". 10 June 2015. Archived from the original on 10 June 2015. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
  190. ^ Mura, Farwest it Sergio. "Francesco Antonio Broccu : www.farwest.it" (in Italian). Retrieved 9 February 2021.
  191. ^ "Il simbolo del Far West". daily.wired.it (in Italian). Retrieved 9 February 2021.
  192. ^ "La pistola di Colt? La inventò prima Broccu" L'Unione Sarda. Web. 5 March 2011. (in Italian)
  193. ^ Treccani. "Treccani 90° - 1925/2015, 90 anni di cultura Italiana - 1990telepass". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 16 December 2019. Translation the first RFID system designed for civil use [...] is due to inventor of Italian origins Mario W. Cardullo.
  194. ^ "NFCNEARFIELDCOMMUNICATION.ORG - The Invention of RFID and the Contributions of CHARLES WALTON". www.nfcnearfieldcommunication.org. Retrieved 16 December 2019. In 1973 Mario Cardullo was the first person to patent a RFID tag with the ability to have specific information written on it that was actually rewritable.
  195. ^ "Pago MA CON LA SIM - Il Sole 24 ORE". st.ilsole24ore.com. Retrieved 16 December 2019. Translation Mario Cardullo, Author of the first patent related to RFID (1973), which is the base of contact-less mobile payments
  196. ^ "Roman Education". History Learning Site. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
  197. ^ Oxford Classical Dictionary, Edited by Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth, Third Edition. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 1996
  198. ^ Michael Chiappetta, "Historiography and Roman Education," History of Education Journal 4, no. 4 (1953): 149-156.
  199. ^ Bergin, Thomas Goddard; Speake, Jennifer (1 January 2009). Encyclopedia of the Renaissance and the Reformation. Facts on File, Incorporated. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-4381-1026-4. Retrieved 23 March 2014.
  200. ^ "seismograph | Definition & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 31 October 2019.
  201. ^ Borgstrom, S.; Lucia, M. De; Nave, R. (25 November 1999). "Luigi Palmieri: first scientific bases for geophysical surveillance in Mt. Vesuvius area". Annals of Geophysics. 42 (3). doi:10.4401/ag-3741.
  202. ^ "senato". treccani.it.
  203. ^ Reiser, Stanley J.; Reiser, Stanley Joel (27 February 1981). Medicine and the Reign of Technology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-28223-9.
  204. ^ "Types and History of Castles - Star Forts". www.castlesandmanorhouses.com. Retrieved 12 November 2019.
  205. ^ "Bastioned trace | warfare". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 12 November 2019.
  206. ^ L'Enciclopedia - La biblioteca di Repubblica, Volume 8 (Felid-Ganz), p. 446
  207. ^ "Castello di Copertino". Polo Museale della Puglia (in Italian). Retrieved 12 November 2019.
  208. ^ "The stock market: from the 'Ter Buerse' inn to Wall Street — Museum of the National Bank of Belgium".
  209. ^ "Borsa". La Repubblica. 5 August 2012. Retrieved 13 November 2019.
  210. ^ "borsa nell'Enciclopedia Treccani". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 13 November 2019.
  211. ^ "lemma Borsa". www.educational.rai.it. Retrieved 13 November 2019.
  212. ^ De Clercq G. (e.a.), Ter Beurze. Geschiedenis van de aandelenhandel in België, 1300-1990, 1993, p. 15-32.
  213. ^ "About Pre-Paid Phone Cards". money4u.tripod.com. Retrieved 11 December 2019.
  214. ^ a b targetpointsrl (20 January 2015). "La carta telefonica prepagata, un'invenzione italiana". Target Point (in Italian). Retrieved 11 December 2019.
  215. ^ "Phone Card Industry History". www.bbgusa.com. Retrieved 11 December 2019.
  216. ^ "tim-inventa-la-carta-sim-prepagata". www.italiaoggi.it. By complying with the type already used in fixed telephony, Tim will in fact launch a product capable of eliminating the constraints of fixed costs. This will be possible thanks to ´Ready to go ', the first prepaid sim card.
  217. ^ "Expo 2015 come opportunità di comunicazione | Notiziario Tecnico TIM". Telecom Italia Corporate (in Italian). Retrieved 12 December 2019.
  218. ^ "Le 14 invenzioni italiane che ci hanno cambiato la vita (o lo faranno)". Corriere della Sera (in Italian). 19 May 2015. Retrieved 12 December 2019.
  219. ^ "Marzi, Giovanni Battista nell'Enciclopedia Treccani". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 19 December 2019.
  220. ^ Gelakoska, Veronica (1 November 2010). Pig 'N Whistle. Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4396-4043-2.
  221. ^ Mameli, Andrea (2007). "E Philo inventò la TV". LINGUAGGIO MACCHINA. Translation On 7 August 1922 a patent is registered in Los Angeles and signed Augusto Bissiri. The idea is to improve the Nipkow disk by obtaining a series of lines of light then converted into light signals and recreated in an electromechanical vision system.
  222. ^ US 1546193, Bissiri, Augusto, "Live-picture production", published 1925-07-14 
  223. ^ US 1713213, Bissiri, Augusto, "Transmission of pictures", published 1929-05-14, assigned to General Electric Company , [previous solutions required a] variable illumination and visibility of the screen on which the picture is reproduced. In accordance with my invention, these difficulties are largely avoided or altogether obviated by the provision of a continuously illuminated screen which is arranged to have its contour and shading varied in accordance with the shading of the picture.
  224. ^ "Invenzioni". Augusto Bissiri (in Italian). 30 July 2012. Retrieved 29 November 2019.
  225. ^ a b Buttler, Tony (19 September 2019). Jet Prototypes of World War II: Gloster, Heinkel, and Caproni Campini's wartime jet programmes. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4728-3597-0. Ingegnere Secondo Campini, inventor of the thermojet [...] In 1931 he and his two brothers moved to Milan and formed the Veivoli e Natanti a reazione
  226. ^ Life. 27 November 1944. First Jet Airplane on public record was Caproni-Campini plane of Italian air force
  227. ^ "Energy Self Sufficient Aircrafts [sic] Can Become Reality through New Propulsion Design Approaches (2015-01-2484 Technical Paper)- SAE Mobilus". saemobilus.sae.org. doi:10.4271/2015-01-2484. Retrieved 4 January 2020. Via researchgate.net CASPER architecture is inspired by Caproni-Campini CC2 indirect jet, with ducted fan and post-combustor
  228. ^ "Thermojet: An Old Idea Can Define a Novel Family of Jets (2013-01-2205 Technical Paper)- SAE Mobilus". saemobilus.sae.org. Retrieved 4 January 2020.
  229. ^ "What toilets and sewers tell us about ancient Roman sanitation". phys.org. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
  230. ^ "Quell' antica latrina romana che sembra una sala da ballo - la Repubblica.it". Archivio - la Repubblica.it (in Italian). 20 March 1999. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
  231. ^ "water-closet in Vocabolario - Treccani". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 8 November 2019.
  232. ^ "Tarot | playing card". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 7 July 2021.
  233. ^ Dummett, Michael. The Game of Tarot. London: Duckworth. p. 81.
  234. ^ Caretti, Luigi (1936). "Subacquee, armi". www.treccani.it. Translation The history of the torpedo is associated with that of its inventors, the Italian G. B. Luppis, [...] and the engineer R. Whitehead.
  235. ^ "Federico Faggin Inventions, Patents and Patent Applications - Justia Patents Search". patents.justia.com. Retrieved 2 November 2019.
  236. ^ Vercesi, Pier Luigi (28 April 2019). "Così inventai il touchscreen, ma dissi no all'offerta di Steve Jobs". Corriere della Sera (in Italian). Retrieved 2 November 2019.
  237. ^ "Triumphal arch." Encyclopædia Britannica (2010)
  238. ^ Nielsen, Clare Iannota (2001). "Rampazetto, Francesco". Oxford Music Online. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.22851.
  239. ^ "Who Invented The Typewriter?". WorldAtlas. 19 September 2019. Retrieved 24 October 2019.
  240. ^ a b c "Scrittura | Museo dinamico della tecnologia Adriano Olivetti" (in Italian). Retrieved 28 October 2019.
  241. ^ "macchine dattilografiche". www.treccani.it.
  242. ^ "Le 14 invenzioni italiane che ci hanno cambiato la vita (o lo faranno)". Corriere della Sera (in Italian). 19 May 2015. Retrieved 11 December 2019.
  243. ^ "La Olivetti ET 101 e le macchine per scrivere elettroniche". 18 June 2012. Archived from the original on 18 June 2012. Retrieved 11 December 2019.
  244. ^ "Olivetti ET 101, 1978 - Museo Tecnologicamente". www.museotecnologicamente.it. Retrieved 11 December 2019. Translation The ET 101 was the first electronic typewriter in the world, a record to share with the QYX, of the Exxon Corporation, which never entered production
  245. ^ "LANCIA, Vincenzo in "Dizionario Biografico"". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 27 November 2019.
  246. ^ Branch, Jon C. (5 May 2016). "1922 Lancia Lambda 1st Series Torpedo". Revivaler. Retrieved 27 November 2019.
  247. ^ US 1694546, Lancia, Vincenzo, "Motor car", published 1928-12-11 
  248. ^ Votolato, Gregory (15 June 2015). Car. Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1-78023-459-5.
  249. ^ Genta, Giancarlo; Morello, Lorenzo; Cavallino, Francesco; Filtri, Luigi (6 January 2014). The Motor Car: Past, Present and Future. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-94-007-8552-6.
  250. ^ "university | Origin and meaning of university by Online Etymology Dictionary". www.etymonline.com. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
  251. ^ "The University in History: 1088 And All That". iotu.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
  252. ^ "10-oldest-universities-world". www.topuniversities.com. 21 June 2019.
  253. ^ Cirica, Paolo (28 May 2018). "L'elenco delle università più antiche del mondo: al primo posto il Marocco". University Equipe (in Italian). Retrieved 8 November 2019.
  254. ^ "università nell'Enciclopedia Treccani". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 27 November 2019.
  255. ^ synd/2316 at Who Named It?
  256. ^ "Vault | architecture". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 29 October 2019.
  257. ^ "7 Carnivals Around the World". www.mentalfloss.com. 17 February 2009. Retrieved 20 November 2019.
  258. ^ "Carnival | pre-Lent festival". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 20 November 2019.
  259. ^ "CARNEVALE in "Enciclopedia Italiana"". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 20 November 2019.
  260. ^ "Vespa Piaggio: un viaggio nella storia italiana - museoscienza". www.museoscienza.org. Retrieved 12 November 2019.
  261. ^ "Focus innovazione: 100 grandi idee italiane - Focus.it". www.focus.it. Retrieved 4 January 2020. Translation To design the scooter (the first in the world to have a load-bearing body) was the engineer from Abruzzo Corradino D'Ascanio.
  262. ^ "History - Vienna Symphonic Library". www.vsl.co.at. Retrieved 5 November 2019.
  263. ^ "viola da gamba, viol, origin, history, iconography, buy, sell, Jose Vazquez, Orpheon Consort". www.orpheon.org. Retrieved 5 November 2019.
  264. ^ "viola nell'Enciclopedia Treccani". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 5 November 2019.
  265. ^ "History of the Viola – Viola Central". violacentral.com. Retrieved 13 November 2019.