Old Pahang kingdom

Mueang Pahang[1] Pahang Tua[2]
449–1454
Capital	Inderapura
Common languages	Malayic, Old Malay
Religion	Mahayana Buddhism[3]
Government	Monarchy
Maharaja
• 449–?	Sri Bhadravarman
• ?–1454	Dewa Sura (last)
History
• First diplomatic mission to China	449
• Second diplomatic mission to China	456
• Melakan invasion	1454
Succeeded by Pahang Sultanate Kingdom of Singapura
Today part of	Malaysia Singapore

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History of Malaysia
Prehistoric period Paleolithic  Lenggong Valley c. 2,000,0000 BCE  Mansuli Valley 235,000 BCE Mesolithic  Niah cultures 65,000–40,000 BCE Neolithic  Bewah man/woman 16,000 BCE  Perak man/woman 11,000–200 BCE  Neolithic Klang 500 – 200 BCE
Early kingdoms Ancient Kedah <100 BCE Chi Tu 100 BCE–642 CE Langkasuka 100 BCE–1474 CE Gangga Negara c. 100 CE–1025 Pan Pan 424–775 Old Kedah 170–1135 Old Pahang 449–1454 Srivijaya 700s–1025 Majapahit 1300s
Rise of Muslim states Kedah Sultanate 1136–present Samudera Pasai Sultanate 1267–1521 Brunei Sultanate 1368–present Malacca Sultanate 1402–1511 Sulu Sultanate 1450–1899 Pahang Sultanate 1470–1623 Aceh Sultanate 1496–1903 Pattani Sultanate 1516– 1902 Johor Sultanate 1528–present Sarawak Sultanate 1599–1641 Selangor Sultanate 1766–present Besut Kingdom 1780–1899 Setul Kingdom 1808–1916 Reman Kingdom 1810–1902 Kubang Pasu Kingdom 1839–1864
Colonial period Portuguese Malacca 1511–1641 Dutch–Portuguese War 1601–1661 Dutch Malacca 1641–1824 Pahang Kingdom 1770–1881 Straits Settlements 1786–1946 Siamese invasion of Kedah 1821–1826 Anglo-Dutch Treaty 1824 Burney Treaty 1826 Naning War 1831–1832 Kingdom of Sarawak 1841–1946 Separation of Perlis from Kedah 1843 Crown Colony of Labuan 1848–1946 Pahang Civil War 1857–1863 Larut Wars 1861–1874 Klang War 1867–1874 Pangkor Treaty 1874 Perak War 1875–1876 British Malaya / Borneo 1874–1946 Jementah Civil War 1879 North Borneo 1882–1946 Pahang Uprising 1891–1895 Mat Salleh Rebellion 1894–1905 Federated Malay States 1895–1946 Anglo-Siamese Treaty 1909 Unfederated Malay States 1909–1946 Battle of Penang 1914 Kelantan rebellion 1915
World War II Japanese occupation of Malaya / Borneo 1941–1945 Malayan campaign 1941–1942 Bornean Campaign 1941–1942 Battle of Muar 1942 Parit Sulong Massacre 1942 Battle of Singapore 1942 Sook Ching 1942 Syburi 1942 Sandakan Death Marches 1942–1945 Si Rat Malai 1943–1945 Jesselton revolt 1943–1944
Formative period BMA of Malaya/Borneo 1945–1946 Crown Colony of N. Borneo/Sarawak 1946–1963 Anti-cession movement 1946–1963 Malayan Union 1946–1948 Federation of Malaya 1948–1963 Malayan Emergency 1948–1960 Baling Talks 1955
Independence period Malayan Independence 1957 Singapore self-governance 1959 ISA 1960 1960–2012 Sarawak Insurgency 1962–1990 North Borneo self-governance 1963 Konfrontasi 1963–1966 Sarawak self-governance 1963 Formation of Malaysia 1963 Singapore in Malaysia 1963–1965 ASEAN Declaration 1967 Second communist insurgency 1968–1989
Modern period 13 May incident 1969 National Operations Council 1969–1971 Declaration of Rukun Negara 1970 New Economic Policy 1971–1990 Federal Territory of KL 1974 1977 Kelantan Emergency 1977 Pedra Branca dispute 1979–2008 South China Sea dispute (Spratly) 1980–present Dawn Raid 1981 Federal Territory of Labuan 1984 Memali incident 1985 Operation Lalang 1987 Constitutional crisis 1987–1988 Peace Agreement of Hat Yai 1989 Royal Immunity Amendments 1993 Asian financial crisis 1997–1998 Reformasi Movement 1998–2022 2008 Malaysian Opposition Wave 2008 H1N1 flu pandemic 2009–2010 Sedition Dragnet 2014 1MDB scandal 2015–present Pakatan Harapan takeover 2018 COVID-19 pandemic 2020–2022 Political crisis 2020–2022 Bornean Amendment 2021–2023 Green Wave 2022–present
Incidents Brunei revolt 1962–1966 North Borneo dispute (Philippine militant attacks) 1962–present Singapore race riots 1964 Brunei's Limbang claim 1967–2009 Penang Hartal riot 1967 13 May Incident 1969 Ligitan and Sipadan dispute 1969–2002 Kuala Lumpur flash floods 1971 Malaysian haze crisis 1972–present AIA building hostage crisis 1975 National Monument bombing 1975 Campbell Shopping Complex fire 1976 Sabah Air GAF Nomad crash 1976 Japan Airlines Flight 715 incident 1977 MH653 incident 1977 1985 Lahad Datu ambush 1985 Memali Incident 1985 Sabah Emergency 1986 Ming Court Affair 1987 Penang terminal bridge collapse 1988 Taufiqiah Al-Khairiah madrasa fire 1989 Bright Sparklers disaster 1991 Highland Towers collapse 1993 Genting landslide 1995 MH2133 incident 1995 Pos Dipang mudflow 1996 Tropical Storm Greg 1996 1998–1999 Malaysia Nipah virus outbreak 1998–1999 2000 Sipadan kidnappings 2000 Al-Ma'unah incident 2000 Sauk Siege 2000 2001 Kampung Medan riots 2001 2002 Taman Hillview landslide 2002 Indian Ocean tsunami 2004 2006–2007 Southeast Asian floods 2006–2007 Bukit Gantang bus crash 2007 Bukit Antarabangsa landslide 2008 H1N1 flu pandemic 2009 Attacks against places of worship 2010 Cameron Highlands bus crash 2010 Hulu Langat landslide 2011 Genting Highlands bus crash 2013 MH370 incident 2014 MH17 incident 2014 2014–15 Malaysia floods 2014–2015 Sabah earthquake 2015 2015 Plaza Low Yat riot 2015 Movida Bar grenade attack 2016 Kim Jong-nam's Assassination 2017 Darul Quran madrasa fire 2017 2018 Subang Temple riot 2018 2020-21 Malaysia floods 2021 LRT train collision 2021 2021-22 Malaysia floods 2021–2022 2022 Batang Kali landslide 2022 2023 Elmina plane crash 2023 2024 Lumut helicopters crash 2024 2024 Ulu Tiram police station attack 2024
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The old Pahang kingdom (Malay: Kerajaan Pahang Tua^[4]) was a historical Malay polity centred in the Pahang region on the east coast of the Malay Peninsula. The polity appeared in foreign records from as early as the 5th century^[5] and at its height, covered much of modern state of Pahang and the entire southern part of the peninsula.^[6] Throughout its pre-Melakan history, Pahang was established as a mueang^[7] or naksat^[8] of some major regional Malayic mandalas including Langkasuka,^[9] Srivijaya^[10] and Ligor.^[11] Around the middle of the 15th century, it was brought into the orbit of Melaka Sultanate and subsequently established as a vassal Muslim Sultanate in 1470, following the coronation of the grandson of the former Maharaja as the first Sultan of Pahang.^[12]

The naming of Pahang relates to the ancient practice in Malayic culture of defining territorial definitions and apportioning lands by water-sheds.^[13] The term 'Pahang' in reference to the kingdom, is thought to originate from the name of the Pahang River.^[14] There have been many theories on the origin of the name. According to Malay legend, across the river at Kampung Kemahang where the present stream of the Pahang parts with the Pahang Tua, in ancient times stretched a huge mahang tree (macaranga) from which the river and kingdom derived their name. This legend lines up with oral tradition among the Proto-Malay Jakun people that say their forefathers called the country Mahang.^[15]

Another notable theory was supported by William Linehan, that relates the early foundation of the kingdom to the settlers from the ancient Khmer civilisation, and claims its name originates from the word saamnbahang (Khmer: សំណប៉ាហាំង) meaning 'tin', based on the discovery of prehistoric tin mines in the state.^[16]

There have been many variations of the name Pahang through history. The Book of Song refers to the kingdom as Pohuang or Panhuang.^[17] The Chinese chronicler Zhao Rugua knew it as Pong-fong. According to the continuation of Ma Duanlin's Wenxian Tongkao, Pahang was called Siam-lao thasi. By Arabs and Europeans, the kingdom was variously styled Pam, Pan, Paam, Paon, Phaan, Phang, Paham, Pahan, Pahaun, Phaung, Phahangh.^[18]

Archaeological evidence shows that humans have inhabited the area that is now Pahang from as early as the Paleolithic Age. Relics have been found at Gunung Senyum that show that a Mesolithic civilisation used Paleolithic implements. Paleolithic artefacts have been discovered At Sungai Lembing, Kuantan, have been discovered without a trace of polishing, which were the remains of a 6,000-year-old civilisation.^[19] Traces of Hoabinhian culture is represented by a number of limestone cave sites.^[20] Late Neolithic relics are abundant, including polished tools, quoit discs, stone ear pendants, stone bracelets and cross-hatched bark pounders.^[21] By around 400 BC, the development of bronze casting led to the flourishing of the Đông Sơn culture, notably for its elaborate bronze war drums.^[22]

The early iron civilisation in Pahang that began around the beginning of Common Era is associated by prehistorians with the late Neolithic culture. Relics from this era, found along rivers are particularly numerous in Tembeling Valley, which served as the old main northern highway of communication. Ancient gold workings in Pahang are thought to date back to this early Iron Age as well.^[23]

The Kra Isthmus region of the Malay Peninsula and its peripheries are recognised by historians as the cradle of Malayic civilisations.^[24] Primordial Malayic kingdoms are described as tributaries to Funan by 2nd century Chinese sources.^[25]

Ancient settlements can be traced from the Tembeling to as far south as Merchang. Their tracks can also be found in deep hinterland of Jelai, along the Chini Lake, and up to the head-waters of the Rompin.^[26] A polity identified as Koli in Geographia or Kiu-Li, centred on the estuary of the Pahang River south of Langkasuka, flourished in the 3rd century. It possessed an important international port, where many foreign ships stopped to barter and resupply.^[27] In common with most of the states in the Malay Peninsula during that time, Kiu-Li was in contact with Funan. Chinese records mention that an embassy sent to Funan by the Indian king Murunda sailed from Kiu-Li's port (between 240 and 245 CE). Murunda presented to the Funanese king Fan Chang four horses from the Yuezhi (Kushan) stud farms.^[28]

By the middle of the 5th century, another polity suggested to be ancient Pahang, was described in the Book of Song as Pohuang or Panhuang (婆皇). The king of Pohuang, She-li- Po-luo-ba-mo ('Sri Bhadravarman') was recorded to have sent an envoy to the Liu Song court in 449–450 with forty-one types of products. In 456–457, another envoy of the same country, led by a Senapati, arrived at the Chinese capital, Jiankang.^[29] This ancient Pahang is believed to had been established later as a mueang^[30] to the mandala of Langkasuka–Kedah centred in the modern-day Patani region that rose to prominence with the regression of Funan from the 6th century.^[31] The Langkasuka-Kedah with its city states that controlled both coastal fronts of Malay Peninsula, assumed importance in the trading network involving Rome, India and China.^[32] The growth in trade brought in foreign influence throughout these city states. The discovery of many Buddhist votive tablets and Hindu icons points toward strong Indian influence during this period.^[33]

By the beginning of the 8th century, Langkasuka-Kedah came under the military and political hegemony of Srivijaya. However, the gradual domination of Langkasuka-Kedah was not achieved by conventional warfare, and no records of major seaborne naval expeditions exist. The submission of Langkasuka-Kedah to the might of Srivijaya was of benefit and interest to the former for, as a commercial centre, it was useful to be allied to a powerful polity with a navy strong enough to protect them.^[34]

In the centuries that followed, up to the final decline of Srivijaya, Langkasuka-Kedah was one of its closest allies and Kedah rose to become a principal port and even the seat of the Srivijayan Maharaja. Langkasuka-Kedah's fortune were, therefore intertwined with Srivijaya's, and the former's decline only came after the fall of the latter to Chola raids from South India in the 11th century.^[35] The power vacuum left by the collapse of Srivijaya was filled by the rise of the Nakhon Si Thammarat kingdom, commonly known in Malay tradition as 'Ligor'. By the 13th century, the kingdom succeeded to incorporate most of the Malay Peninsula including Pahang under its mandala. During this period, Pahang, designated as Muaeng Pahang^[36] was established as one of the twelve naksat city states^[37] of Ligor.^[38] In the early 14th century, the fortune of Ligor was eclipsed by the increase in power of the Thai Sukhothai kingdom and the expansion southwards by its king, Ram Khamhaeng who brought it under Thai hegemony.^[39]

The 14th century was the time of the earliest recorded evidence of Islam in the east coast of Malay Peninsula.^[40][41] The period also coincides with Pahang, beginning to consolidate its influence in the southern part of the Malay Peninsula. The kingdom, described by Portuguese historian, Manuel Godinho de Erédia as Pam, was one of the two kingdoms of Malayos in the peninsula, in succession to Pattani, that flourished before the establishment of Melaka in the 15th century. The ruler of Pahang, titled Maharaja, was also the overlord of countries of Ujong Tanah ('land's end') which were the southern parts of the peninsula including Temasek.^[42] The Majapahit chronicle, Nagarakretagama even used the name Pahang to designate the Malay Peninsula, an indication of the importance of this kingdom.^[43]

The History of Ming records several envoy missions from Pahang to the Ming court in the 14th and 15th centuries. In 1378, Maharaja Tajau sent envoys with a letter on a gold leaf and bringing as tribute six foreign slaves and products of the country. In 1411, during the reign of Maharaja Pa-la-mi-so-la-ta-lo-si-ni (transliterated by historian as 'Parameswara Teluk Chini'), he also sent envoys carrying tributes. The Chinese returned the favour in 1412 by sending Admiral Zheng He as an envoy to Pahang, and in 1414, Pahang sent tribute to China again. In 1416, they sent tribute together with Kozhikode and Java envoys, and in return Zheng He was again ordered to go to Pahang.^[44]

The 15th century witnessed the rise of Melaka Sultanate, which under the Sang Sapurba dynasty had aggressively consolidated its influence on the west coast of Malay Peninsula. Earlier, at the end of the 13th century, the dynasty wrested the small trading outpost at Temasek from Pahang influence and established the short-lived kingdom of Singapura which was sacked by the Javanese a century later. The last king of Singapura, Iskandar Shah established Melaka to succeed Singapura.

Muzaffar Shah, the fifth sultan of Melaka, who reigned from 1445 to 1458, refused to acknowledge the suzerainty of Ligor over his country. The Ligorians, in assertion of their claim, sent an invading army led by Awi Chakri, overland to Melaka. The invaders, who were aided by Pahang auxiliaries, followed the old route by the Tembeling, Pahang and Bera rivers. They were easily defeated and fled back by the same route. Subsequently, they attempted a naval invasion, but were again defeated. Muzaffar Shah then conceived the idea of checking Ligorian pretensions by attacking the Ligor vassal state of Pahang. An expedition was organised by Muzaffar's son, Raja Abdullah and was personally led by the Melakan Bendahara Tun Perak with two hundred sail, big and small, accordingly proceeded to Pahang and conquered it in 1454. The reigning ruler of Pahang, Maharaja Dewa Sura, fled to the interior while his daughter Putri Wanang Seri was captured. The victors, anxious to gain the goodwill of the Bendahara, hastened in pursuit of the fugitive king until he was captured and carried together with his daughter to Melaka.^[45]

In the year that Pahang was conquered, Raja Abdullah married Putri Wanang Seri, the daughter of the captive king, whose name had been changed, probably on conversion to Islam, to Putri Lela Wangsa. By her he had two sons Raja Ahmad and Raja Muhammad.^[46]

Little is known on the administrative system used in Pahang, but throughout its history, several government titles are recorded. The government was headed by a maharaja (literally 'emperor') as an absolute monarch,^[47] a similar title held by its overlord in Ligor.^[48] Towards the end of the kingdom, the maharaja was recorded by de Erédia as belonging to the same dynasty that ruled Ligor.^[49] A title known as Senapati was recorded in the Book of Song, a Sanskrit word literally means 'lord of the army'. The Senapati was recorded in the Chinese chronicle to had headed several envoy missions to China.^[50] Other than that, a Pahang Shahbandar was known to have ruled Temasek before the island was wrested from Pahang by the Sang Sapurba dynasty. The word Shahbandar is a title adopted from Persian that literally means 'lord of the port'.^[51]

The old court name was Inderapura, and the capital has always been known as 'the town'. The pre-Melakans calling it by Sanskrit name Pura, the Malays 'Pekan', the Portuguese 'a Cidade', while the people of Rompin and Bebar described the capital as Pekan Pahang. Pura may have covered a much larger than the town known as Pekan today. In addition to modern Pekan, it appears to have comprised the land on the banks of Pahang river as far as Tanjung Langgar.^[52]

The culture of ancient Pahang was the result of the amalgamation of various Mon-Khmer and Malayic cultures.^[53][54] The pre-Melakan inhabitants of the country, together with people of Isthmus region's civilisation further north, were collectively referred as 'Siamese' in the Malay Annals^[55] of the Melaka Sultanate, although they were identified culturally as Malays by Portuguese historian de Erédia.^[56] On the other hand, de Erédia adopted the term 'Siam' and applied it in a broader context, referring to the overlord of these historical 'Siamese' people, that is the Thai kingdom of Ayuthaya.^[57] This broad Portuguese application of the term was later popularised as an exonym for successive Thai kingdoms by other European writers.

In the classical Malay text Hikayat Hang Tuah, it was noted that although the Pahang people regarded themselves as Malays, they spoke and sang their folk songs in a language that differs from the Malay language spoken in Melaka, which would indicate a mixture of tongues and races.^[58] The pre-Melakan Pahang people were also described by Fei Xin as the adherents of Mahayana Buddhism, on which tantric orgies involving human sacrifices were superimposed. Its influence in Pahang, though it waned with the introduction of Islam, may be traced up to the beginning of the 17th century.^[59]

The most important product of ancient Pahang was gold. Its gold mines were considered the best and the largest in the whole peninsula. The gold that come from here was traded with Alexandria.^[60] The peninsula as a whole was known to the world as a source of the precious metal to the extent that it was proclaimed Chrysḗ Chersónēsos (the golden peninsula) by Ptolemy.^[61] According to Fei Xin, Pahang also produced rice, salt which was made by boiling the sea water, and wine by fermenting the sap of the coconut tree. Fei Xin also mentioned on rare and valuable forest products like camphor barus, olibanum, agarwood, sandalwood, sapanwood, pepper and many others. Pahang, in turn, imported silver, coloured silk, Java cloth, copper and ironware, gongs and boards.^[62]

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