Roman roads in Judaea

The Roman roads in Judaea form an extensive network built in the Roman period in the Roman province of Judaea (later Syria Palaestina). Remains of some still exist.

The purpose of constructing these roads in ancient Rome was to establish an extensive network of thoroughfares, similar to those found throughout the Roman Empire.^[1] These roads primarily served the movement of Roman military units and also facilitated public transportation, including mail delivery and travel for central government officials. Additionally, the roads played an economic role in transporting goods and people.^[1]

Some of the roads in the Judaea were paved following the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73), some during the time of Roman emperor Hadrian, and some during the reign of Emperor Marcus Aurelius.^[2] The prominent characteristic of these roads was their use of the most convenient route possible from one point to another: a route that avoided natural obstacles, remained passable throughout the year, and had a gentle slope – suitable for pedestrian travel, riding, and vehicle passage. Along the roads, milestones were erected to mark the distance and direction, and there were forts and watchtowers where soldiers guarded the roads.^[2][3]

There are modern roads in Israel that utilize the routes of the ancient Roman roads. The most prominent example is the Ashkelon–Kiryat Gat–Hebron road (today Highway 35), which ascends to Hebron along a winding route with minimal incline. However, most of the ancient Roman roads in modern Israel were destroyed by the British, who paved roads over them.^[4]

From the headquarters of the Legio VI Ferrata, which camped at Legio, a strategic location on the Caesarea–Beit She'an road in the southern foothills of the Jezreel Valley near the modern Megiddo junction, roads were constructed in the year 120 CE to the provincial capital Caesarea,^[5] to Sepphoris,^[6] and to Acre.^[2]

The main longitudinal roads were:

• Along the coast, partly on the ancient Via Maris, from Antioch in Syria to Alexandria in Egypt. Both cities were on main trade arteries: Antioch on the trade routes that led from the Mediterranean ports to the area of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, and Alexandria was the main port city of Egypt. The route of the road passed through the cities: Tyre, Acre, Caesarea, Apollonia, Jaffa, Yavne, Ashkelon and Gaza.^[2]
• An eastern road, from Caesarea to Beersheba via Antipatris, Lod (then called Diospolis), Beit Guvrin (called Eleutheropolis), from there it went up to Hebron and went down south to Beersheba.^[2]
• Another road along the national drainage divide (Highway 60) that left Tzippori (Diocaesarea), and passed through Megiddo (Legio), Nablus (then Neopolis), Jerusalem, Hebron, Beersheba and continued to Mampsis.^[2]
• The road that goes north from Jericho to Nablus – the road goes up north from Jericho in a straight line to ancient Phasaelis (near modern Petza'el) and from there it splits: one route goes up north through the valley of Wadi Ahmar, and goes up through the Alexandrium area to Nablus. The second route, goes up to the Samaria mountains through the southern ridge of Ma'ale Efrayim, passes through the villages of Jadal Bnei Fadal, Aqbara and up to Nablus (route 505 east). A description of a part of the road appears in the British survey: "The Roman road adjacent to 'Kh. Phasaelis' has been preserved in perfect condition, it includes three rows of stones, the average area of which is a square foot, forming the two extreme rows and the backbone of the road" – hence the width of the road was 18 feet – 7 meters^[7]
• Another road went from the city of Banias to Nablus through the Jordan Valley, where it split to another route that went up to Jerusalem via Jericho (Highway 90). some sections of the Beit She'an–Jericho road were well preserved, other parts were gone. Most travelers write it was a dangerous road with many bandits.^[8] To the south and north of Beit She'an milestones belonging to this road were found: one of them is dedicated to Caracalla and others to Marcus Aurelius. On one milestone an inscription was found: "The 10th mile from Scythopolis" (Beit She'an).^[3]
• The road leading north from the Negev (in two sections, one from Kadesh and the other from Eilat through Akrabbim), through the ridge of Mount Amasa and the south of Mount Hebron along the back of the mountain and the drainage divide to the city of Hebron (a line of citadels was built along this road to protect the inhabitants of the mountain). Near Kibbutz Har Amasa.^[5]

• In the north the road from Banias to Tyre.^[9]
• The road from Jericho to Antipatris, which passed through Aqraba.^[9]
• The southern road, from Jerusalem to Ashkelon through Beit Guvrin. On this road, many milestones have were found, as it continues to Gaza as well as connecting to the long road that reaches Beersheba and Mampsis.^[10]

The historic Jaffa-Jerusalem road passed through Lod, and split next to it into two roads:^[11]

• Bethoron road – this road passed through Hadid and Modi'in, and continued along the biblical "ascent of Bethoron" between Lower and Upper Bethoron, next to todays Highway 443.^[2][12] This road is mentioned on the Madaba Map, and even indicates a road station on the ninth mile from Jerusalem (TO ENNATON),^[13] the remains of which are found on site Khirbat el-Lathain near Giv'at Ze'ev.^[2] From this station the road turned south towards Jerusalem, and its remains were found in Bir Nabala and Beit Hanina.^[14] This road is mentioned by Josephus and Chazal – "two camels that used to go up the steps of Bethoron and hit each other".^[15] In excavations held in 2023 by archeology chief Haim Cohen, rare remains of the road were uncovered in a total length of 2 kilometers, near the Maccabim checkpoint^[16]
• Emmaus road – Israel's Highway 1 in its first section runs along the old Emmaus road, with slight deviations, to bypass topographical obstacles. Further on the road passes through the Sha'ar HaGai area, a section characterized by an ascent of about 300 meters over three kilometers, up to Horvat Masad, near Neve Ilan. In this section, construction works were carried out. In some cases the obstacles were overcome by creating roads along the mountain side and along ravines. After passing through Abu Ghosh (Kiryat Ye'arim), the road reached Motza, and ascended from there via the route known today as "Ma'ale Romaim" towards the area of Har HaMenuchot and the present-day Har Nof neighborhood.^[17]

There are several modern roads that still follow the Roman routes: the most prominent of them is the Ashkelon – Kiryat Gat – Tarqumiyah- Hebron road, (Highway 35 Israel) that leads to Hebron on a winding route. On the road from the Valley of Elah – Jerusalem (road 375) and on the old Bethoron road (road 443) the Roman carved steps are still visible.^[10]

In the Western Land of Israel survey, conducted on behalf of the Palestine Exploration Fund by Conder and Kitchener in the years 1870 – 1880, the Roman roads were mapped. In the emergency survey conducted in 1968 in the Judea and Samaria region, the roads were located again. After 1975, Adam Zertal pointed out the roads included in the Manasseh Hill Country Survey.^[18]

As of 1982, more than 450 milestones had been identified in the Land of Israel and more than a quarter had inscriptions.^[19] They were placed at a consistent distances of about 2000 paces (about 1.5 km) from each other. The milestones were usually made of limestone and were 150 on 250 centimeters high.^[6]

Their function was mainly to provide information about travel distances for road travelers. But also to exalt the ruler who paves the way, whose name was mentioned on them.^[3][5]

The Babylonian Talmud Tractate Shabbat records a debate among sages regarding the roads, bridges, and other public projects undertaken by the Romans and their impact on the Jewish population:

Rabbi Yehuda opened and said: How pleasant are the actions of this nation (i.e. the Romans) as they established marketplaces, bridges, and bathhouses.

Rabbi Yosei was silent.

Rabbi Shimon ben Yochai responded and said: Everything that they established, they established only for their own purposes. They established marketplaces to place prostitutes in them; bathhouses to pamper themselves; and bridges to collect taxes from all who pass over them.

— Babylonian Talmud, Shabbat, 33b

Archaeologist Israel Roll, who specialized in researching the issue, emphasizes the propaganda role. He demonstrates it this way: when a man traveled from Jerusalem to Beit Gubrin, he sees on his way: "mathematical precision of 29 groups of milestones, which repeat and remind him of the titles of the great Roman emperors in the past and present – brainwashing – the embodiment of force of Roman power".^[20] This hypothesis is also supported by the fact that millstones were not found in many places prior to the Jewish revolt against the Romans. In Roll's opinion, the rebels against Rome broke up these symbols of Roman emperors as part of their rebellion.^[7]

Roman roads were mentioned in a famous Monty Python comedy sketch in which one character suggests that the Romans have done nothing for the people of Judea and several Roman contributions were brought up by other characters.^{[21][22][23][24][excessive citations]}