Shah Waliullah Dehlawi

"Shah Waliullah" redirects here. For other uses, see Shah Waliullah (disambiguation).
Shaykh al-Islām, Imam of Hind, Mujaddid
Shah Waliullah Dehlawi
قطب الدين أحمد ولي الله بن عبد الرحيم العمري الدهلوي
Personal
Born(1703-02-21)21 February 1703
Phulat, Muzaffarnagar, Mughal Empire
Died20 August 1762(1762-08-20) (aged 59)
Delhi, Mughal Empire
Resting placeMehdiyan[11]
ReligionIslam
NationalityMughal
DenominationSunni
JurisprudenceHanafi[1][2]
CreedAsh'ari[3][4][5][6][7][8][9]
MovementNaqshbandi[10]
Main interest(s)Hadith, Tafsir, History, Bibliography, Fiqh
Notable work(s)Translation of the Quran into Persian
Hujjatullah-il-Baligha
Al-Fauzul Kabeer
Izalat al-Khafa 'an Khilafat al-Khulafa
Al-Akidatul Hasanah
Majmua Rasail Imam Shah Wali Ullah
OccupationMufassir, Muhaddtih, Historiographer, Bibliographer, Theologian, Philosopher, Academic, Linguist
Muslim leader
Students
Influenced by
Influenced
Arabic name
Personal (Ism)Aḥmad
أحمد
Epithet (Laqab)Quṭb ad-Dīn
قطب الدين
Shāh Walīullāh
شاه ولي الله
Toponymic (Nisba)al-ʿUmarī
العمري
ad-Dihlawī
الدهلوي

Qutb ud-Din Ahmad ibn ʿAbd-ur-Rahim al-ʿUmari ad-Dehlawi (Arabic: قطب الدين أحمد بن عبد الرحيم العمري الدهلوي, romanized: Quṭb ad-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʿAbd-ur-Raḥīm al-ʿUmarī ad-Dehlawī‎; 1703–1762), commonly known as Shah Waliullah Dehlawi (also Shah Wali Allah), was an Islamic Sunni scholar and Sufi reformer,[13] who contributed to Islamic revival in the Indian subcontinent, and is there fore seen by his followers as a renewer.[14][15]

Early life and education

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Ahmad was born on 21 February 1703 to Shah Abdur Rahim, a prominent Islamic scholar of Delhi. He later became known as Shah Waliullah because of his piety. He memorized the Qur'an by the age of seven. Soon thereafter, he mastered Arabic and Persian letters. He was married at fourteen. By fifteen he had completed the standard curriculum of Hanafi law, theology, geometry, arithmetic and logic; two years later after the demise of his father he succeeded him as the dean of his Madrasah-i Rahimiyah. His father, Shah Abdur Rahim was the founder of the Madrasah-i Rahimiyah. He was on the committee appointed by Aurangzeb for compilation of the code of law, Fatawa-e-Alamgiri. Shah Waliullah visited Makkah at the age of 29 years in 1732. His grandson was Shah Ismail Dehlvi who had a huge impact on the Deobandi movement.[16][17][18][19]

Death

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He died on Friday the 29th of Muharram 1176 AH/ 20 August 1762 at Jummah prayer in Old Delhi, aged 59.[20] He was buried beside his father Shah Abdur Rahim at Mehdiyan (a graveyard to the left of Delhi Gate).[21]

Views

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On Sunni Islam

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Shah Waliullah defined Sunni Islam in broad terms, rather than confining it to a specific school of theology. According to Shah, Ahl al-Sunnah wal Jam'ah are those who followed the Qur'an and Sunnah on the way of the Sahaba (companions) and Tabi'īn, by holding "fast to the beliefs of the pious ancestors (al-salaf)." He considered the four legal schools, as well as both the Ahl al-Hadith (Athari) and Ahl al-Kalam (Maturidi and Ash'ari) schools of theology to be part of Sunnism. According to Shah, the differences between them are only over secondary issues of valid Ikhtilaf; while on fundamental issues they remain united.[22][23]

On Fiqh (Jurisprudence)

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He believed that leaders should rule in accordance with the precepts of Islam and the teachings of Islam should be purified by teachers with ijtihad based on the basis on which the Quran and Hadith is founded on. He believed that there are certain bounderies that must be placed on Sufism and that the four main madhhabs were to be mixed into one system of law and moral codes.[24] He said:

"There are numerous benefits in it that are no secret to anyone. These are especially required in these days when people lack courage, when carnal passions have taken deep root in people's souls and whenever a person is obsessed only with his opinion."[25]

In his work Tahfimat al-Ilahiyya, Shah declared his conviction that unification of Hanafi and Shafi'i schools of law was essential for Indian Islamic revival.[26][27] This was to be achieved through the legal re-evaluation of the madh'habs in the light of Qur'an and Hadith. Whatever rules not aligning with the Scriptures were to be discarded. Shah specifically sought the reformation of Hanafi jurisprudence and made its legal rulings confirm to authentic hadiths collected by the early hadith scholars, thus implementing his vision of reducing legal differences between madhabs.[citation needed] Waliullah's re-evaluation efforts led him to declare that Shafi'i school was the closest to the Sunnah. Thus, most of his legal positions aligned with the views of Imam Al-Shafi'i.[28] Shah Waliullah sought the reconciliation of differences of Shafi'i and Hanafi schools of Fiqh as his duty. He was particularly concerned with the pervasive Hanafi fanaticism prevalent in his community, which he rebuked, and called for an inclusive synthesis of all of the schools of law.[29][30] He said:

"The entire Ummah, or rather those of them who are dependable, are unanimous about the fact that it is permissible to follow one of these four Madhahib that have been methodically systemized and recorded. This unanimity remains to this day."[25]

On Tafsir (Qur'anic exegesis)

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Further information: Tafsir

Shah Waliullah placed emphasis on a direct understanding of the Qur'an, maintaining that those students with sufficient knowledge must work with the text, rather than previous commentaries. He argued that Qurʾān is clear to any student with sufficient knowledge of Arabic, just like it was understandable to its first recipients and scholars, including those parts that are mutashābih (unclear). Shah believed that one should prefer the interpretation that is closest to the literal meaning (ẓāhir al-maʿnā) of the Qurʾān and the Sunnah which fits the Qur'anic context, without clinging to a particular school in exegesis, grammar, or theology.[31]

On Divine Attributes

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On the nature of Divine Attributes, Shah Waliullah held the positions of the Ash'ari creed.[13][14][16][20][22][23][24] Shah Waliullah held to the position that ta'wil (alternative interpretation) of the Divine Attributes is permissible within limits. He writes in Hujjatullah al-Balighah: "It is our right to interpret them (the attributes of God) in senses more easy to comprehend and more suitable than what they said, for clarity’s sake, since holding these (specific) meanings is not stipulated, and the one investigating by means of intellectual proof is not forced to use them, and they are not preferable to others, nor do they have any exclusive merit."[32]

Despite being an Ash'ari, Shah Waliullah opposed excessiveness in Kalam (speculative theology) and defended the position of the early Ahl al-Hadith creed.[33][34] Shah wrote in Hujjatullah al-Balighah: "Those speculative theologians (Mutakallimun) who behaved contemptuously towards the Ahl al-Hadith calling them corporealists and anthropomorphists, saying that they sought refuge in the formula of "without asking how" (Bila Kayf)... this contempt of theirs is unfounded and they err in their sayings both from the viewpoint of tradition and of reason and they err in slandering the leaders of the true religion."[34]

In contrast to those speculative theologians which he deemed to be in err, he said the following regarding the limits of interpretation and its speculative nature: "There is no ruling to the effect that God meant what we hold, nor is there a consensus that one should believe in them and acknowledge them; such a thing would be absurd."[32]

Stance on Marathas

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His dislike of the Marathas is expressed in one of his dreams that he narrated in “Fuyooz-ul Haramain” where he said "And I saw that the king of the infidels took over the land of the Muslims and looted their property. He enslaved their women and children and in the city of Ajmer he declared the rites of disbelief".[35]

On the Shi'a

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In one of his letters available in manuscripts collection at Rampur, he asks Muslim rulers led by Ahmad Shah Bahadur to put a ban on public religious ceremonies by non-Muslims and to issue strict orders against certain ceremonies by the Shi'a: "Strict orders should be issued in all Islamic towns forbidding religious ceremonies publicly practiced by non-Muslims (such as the performance of Holi and ritual bathing in the Ganges). On the tenth of Muharram, Shi'a should not be allowed to go beyond the bounds of moderation, neither should they say or do things that are considered offensive by other Muslims (that is, recite tabarra, or curse the first three successors of the Prophet Muhammad) in the streets or bazars.[36]

Arab culture

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Shah Waliullah strongly advocated against adopting non-Islamic customs, and argued for commitment to Arabic Islamic culture. Shah Waliullah believed that: “Muslims, no matter where they live, wherever they spend their youthful days, they should in any case be completely separated from the natives of that country in their culture, traditions and mannerisms. And wherever they are, they must be immersed in their Arabic splendor and Arabic trends”[35]. On adherence to Arab culture, he insists: “Beware! The rich intend to adopt the ways of strangers and non-Arabs and those who deviate from the right path, and tries to mix and be like them”.[35] In his own words, he sought to conform to the habits and customs of the early Arabs and Muhammad, and to "abstain from the customs of the Ajam and the Indians." The only logical hikmat-i-amali, or practical wisdom for Muslim rulers, was to strengthen community boundaries by conducting Jihad against opponents and promoting the cultural practises (adab) that differentiated that faithful from non-Muslims.[37]

Works

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  • Hujjat Allah al-Balighah (The Conclusive Argument of God), Lahore: Shaikh Ghulam Ali and Sons, 1979. Considered to be his most important work. First published in Bareilly, India in 1286 Hijri.[38] This book explains how Islam is found suitable for all races, cultures, and people of the world and how successfully it solves social, moral, economic and political problems of human beings.
  • (The Sacred knowledge), ed. D. Pendlebury, trans. G. Jalbani, The Sacred Knowledge, London: Octagon, 1982.[39]
  • Al-Khayr al-kathir (The Abundant Good), trans. G. Jalbani, Lahore: Ashraf, 1974.[39]
  • Sata'at (Manifestations), trans. into Urdu by S.M. Hashimi, Lahore: Idarah Thaqafat Islamiyya, 1989; trans. into English by G. Jalbani, Sufism and the Islamic Tradition: the Lamahat and Sata'at of Shah Waliullah, London.[39]
  • Lamahat (Flashes of Lightning), Hyderabad: Shah Wali Allah Academy, 1963; trans. G. Jalbani, Sufism and the Islamic Tradition: the Lamahat and Sata'at of Shah Waliullah, London, 1980. (One of the important writings on Sufism.)[39]
  • Futuh al-Haramayn (Emanations or Spiritual Visions of Mecca and Medina).[39]
  • Al-Tafhimat (Instructions or Clear Understanding), Dabhail, 1936, 2 vols. (One of the most comprehensive metaphysical works.)
  • Al-Budur al-bazighah (The Full Moons Rising in Splendour).
  • Ta’wil al-ahadith fi rumuz qisas al-anbiya (Symbolic Interpretation of the Events in the Mysteries of Prophetic Tales) [40]

Besides these, he is also credited being the first to translate the Quran into Persian in the Indian subcontinent.[15]

Shah Waliullah worked hard to ensure that he was a role model for other Muslims. His deep understanding of the Qur'an, Hadith, Fiqh, and Tasawwuf made him a highly knowledgeable scholar at an early age.

Since he believed that an emphasis on the Qur'anic teachings was made vital to Muslims, he translated Arabic Qur'an into Persian. Few Muslims spoke Arabic and so the Qur'an had not been widely studied previously. Some Ulama criticized Shah Waliullah, but his work proved very popular. In addition to translating the Quran, Shah Waliullah wrote 51 books in Persian and Arabic.[41] Amongst the most famous were Hujjat Allah al-Baligha and Izalat al-Khafa.

He felt a debt to the Sufis for spreading Islam throughout India. He also appreciated Sufi spirituality. Waliullah built a bridge between Sufis and the Ulama (Islamic scholars).[42]

References

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  1. ^ Siddiqa, Ayesha. "Peace in Afghanistan." (2019): 703–710. "The first significant name is Shah Waliullah (1703–62), a Hanafi scholar,"
  2. ^ Shahid, Amir Khan. "DISPLACEMENT OF SHAH WALIULLAH’S Shah MOVEMENT AND ITS IMPACT ON NORTHERN INDIAN MUSLIM REVIVALIST THOUGHTS. Journal of the Research Society of Pakistan 51.2 (2014). "It would not be out of context to cite a reference of Shah Abdul Aziz (1746–1824) which is provided by Manazar Ahsan Gilanithat someone enquired from Shah Waliullah whether the Shias were Kafir. He maintained the different viewpoints among the Hanafi School of thought on the subject.."
  3. ^ Mohammad Afzal (2003). "Shah Wali Allah's Philosophy of Education". No. 108 of N.I.H.C.R. publication. National Institute of Historical and Cultural Research, Centre of Excellence, Quaid-i-Azam University. p. 12. ISBN 9789694150628. Shah Wali Allah agrees with Shaykh Abu'l Hassan Ashari on most of the points held in dispute. In the beginning of the tenth khizanab he mentions fourteen main points. Shah Wali Allah is of the view that the Ashari school of thought generally represents the school of the companions. It is stated that Shah Wali Allah himself was Ashari in taste. {{cite magazine}}: Cite magazine requires |magazine= (help)
  4. ^ Mohammad Sharif Khan (Professor of Education, Aligarh Muslim University); Mohammad Anwar Saleem (Department of Philosophy, Aligarh Muslim University) (1994). Muslim Philosophy and Philosophers. New Delhi: Ashish Publishing Houseg. p. 25. ISBN 9788170246237.
  5. ^ Edward Craig, ed. (1998). Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Questions to sociobiology. Vol. 8. Routledge. p. 734. ISBN 9780415187138. In the tenth khizana, Shah Wali Allah explains his theological view which, according to him, is in full accord with Ash'arite theology.
  6. ^ Oliver Leaman, ed. (2015). The Biographical Encyclopedia of Islamic Philosophy. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 558. ISBN 9781472569462. Another important work dealing with metaphysics is al-Khayr al-Kathir (The Abundant Good), which is divided into ten chapters or, by his description of it, khizana (treasures). The book seeks to reconstruct new cohesive modes pertaining to the reality of wujud (being), the knowledge of God and human knowledge, the relationship between the Creator and the cosmos, and the reality of prophecy and the prophethood of Muhammad. Then, he discusses the principles of sainthood and Sufism. In the eighth and ninth chapters, practical and theoretical religious matters, such as the Shari'a (Islamic law) and the eschatological theories of Islam, are evaluated. In the last chapter, his theological views, generally in line with the Ash'arite theological school, are discussed.
  7. ^ Shah Waliullah Dehlawi (2008). Ahmad Farid al-Mazidi (ed.). الخير الكثير أو خزائن الحكمة [The Abundant Good or Repositories of Wisdom] (in Arabic). Lebanon: Dar al-Kutub al-'Ilmiyya. p. 6. ISBN 9782745158123 – via Google Books. وقال في الختام: وكتبه بيده الفقير إلى رحمة الله الكريم الودود ولي الله أحمد بن عبد الرحيم بن وجيه الدين بن معظم الدين بن منصور بن أحمد بن محمود عفا الله عنه وعنهم، وألحقه وإياهم بأسلافهم الصالحين؛ العمري نسباً، الدهلوي وطناً، الأشعري عقيدة، الصوفي طريقة، الحنفي عملاً، والحنفي والشافعي تدريساً [He (i. e., Shah Waliullah Dehlawi) then finally said: "And he wrote it with his hand, the one needy of the mercy of Allah the Generous and Most Loving, Waliullah Ahmad b. 'Abd al-Rahim b. Wajih al-Din b. Mu'azzam al-Din b. Mansur b. Ahmad b. Mahmud, Allah forgive him and them, and join him and them with their righteous ancestors. Al-'Umari by way of lineage, al-Dehlawi by way of homeplace, al-Ash'ari in 'Aqida, al-Sufi in Tariqah, al-Hanafi by way of practice, al-Hanafi and al-Shafi'i in terms of teaching."]
  8. ^ "Shah Waliullah Ijazah:Hanafi, Ashari, Sufi". daralhadith.org.uk. 31 December 2008. Archived from the original on 11 Nov 2023.
  9. ^ "Shah Waliullah – transmitter of an Ashari Musalsal chain". daralhadith.org.uk. 14 February 2015. Archived from the original on 11 Nov 2023.
  10. ^ a b Peter N. Stearns, ed. (2008). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World. Vol. 4. Oxford University Press. p. 243. ISBN 9780195176322.
  11. ^ "Shah Waliullah Dehlavi". Encyclopedia of World Biography. Encyclopedia.com.
  12. ^ Robinson, Francis (2001). The 'Ulama of Farangi Mahall and Islamic Culture in South Asia. C. Hurst. p. 225. ISBN 9781850654759.
  13. ^ a b Muhammad Mosleh-uddin (2003). Shah Waliullah's Contribution to Hadith Literature: A Critical Study. Aligarh, India: Department of Islamic Studies: Aligarh Muslim University. p. 2. As for Tasawuf Shah Waliullah was a reformist Sufi..
  14. ^ a b Kunju, Saifudheen (2012). "Shah Waliullah al-Dehlawi: Thoughts and Contributions": 1. Retrieved 5 April 2015. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  15. ^ a b Abbas, Mohammad. "Shah Waliullah and Moderation". Islamic Research Foundation International, Inc. Retrieved 5 April 2015.
  16. ^ a b Anil Chandra Banerjee (1981). "Two Nations: The Philosophy of Muslim Nationalism". p. 44. Retrieved 2016-01-21.
  17. ^ "Ranjit Singh | Maharaja, Biography, Family, & History | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 2024-10-25. Retrieved 2024-11-04.
  18. ^ Shaheed, Shah Ismail. Tafsir of Surah al-Layl. IslamKotob.
  19. ^ Sinan Siyech, Mohammed (4 February 2020). "What Makes a Movement Violent: Comparing the Ahle Hadith (Salafists) in India and Pakistan". MEI. Archived from the original on 18 April 2021.
  20. ^ a b Al-Khateeb Al-Tabrezi (2013). Mishkaat Al-Masaabih (Manifestations of Truth). Nawab Qutbuddin Khan Dehlavi (trans.), vol. 1, p. 40. Darul-Ishaat.
  21. ^ Syed Mehboob Rizwi. History of The Dar al-Ulum Deoband (Volume 2) (PDF). Translated by Prof. Murtaz Husain F. Quraishi (1981 ed.). Idara-e-Ehtemam, Dar al-Ulum Deoband. p. 109. Retrieved 9 July 2019.
  22. ^ a b K. Hermansen, Marcia (1996). "Chapter 84: The Difference Between the People of the Hadith and Those Who Exercise Personal Opinion". The Conclusive Argument from God: Shāh Walī Allāh of Delhi's Ḥujjat Allāh al-Bāligha. Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill Publishers. pp. 24–26, 437–450. ISBN 978-90-04-10298-9.
  23. ^ a b MUHAMMAD MOSLEH UDDIN (2003). SHAH WALIULLAH'S CONTRIBUTION TO HADITH LITERATURE: A Critical Study. Aligarh, India: Department of Islamic Studies: Aligarh Muslim University. pp. 90–91.
  24. ^ a b Hourani, Albert (1991). A History of the Arab Peoples. England: Faber and Faber. p. 257.
  25. ^ a b Waliullah, Shah. Hujjat Allah Al Baligha. Dar Kotob Ilmiyah. p. 361.
  26. ^ Mallat, Chibli (1995). "The Renewal of Islamic Law: Muhammad Baqer as-Sadr, Najaf and the Shi'i International, Chibli Mallat". Digest of Middle East Studies. 4 (2): 64–67. doi:10.1111/j.1949-3606.1995.tb00552.x. Retrieved May 12, 2023.
  27. ^ Hamid, Saiyid (2016). "SOCIO-ECONOMIC IDEAS OF SHAH WALIULLAH" (PDF). Retrieved May 12, 2023.
  28. ^ MUHAMMAD MOSLEH UDDIN (2003). SHAH WALIULLAH'S CONTRIBUTION TO HADITH LITERATURE: A Critical Study. Aligarh, India: Department of Islamic Studies: Aligarh Muslim University. pp. 139, 142–144.
  29. ^ MUHAMMAD MOSLEH UDDIN (2003). SHAH WALIULLAH'S CONTRIBUTION TO HADITH LITERATURE: A Critical Study. Aligarh, India: Department of Islamic Studies: Aligarh Muslim University. pp. 139–140.
  30. ^ L. Esposito, John (2013). "Chapter 2: salafiya, modernism, and revival". The Oxford Handbook of Islam and Politics. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-19-539589-1. Shah Wali Allah was primarily concerned about the pervasive Hanafi fanaticism that he observed in his community. Instead of condoning this he was more inclusive and argued for a synthesis of all of the schools of law
  31. ^ Schmidtke, Sabine (2016). The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Theology. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 768–769. ISBN 978-0-19-969670-3. He placed great emphasis on understanding the Qurʾān, first and foremost, through the Qurʾān itself, .. Shāh Walī Allāh maintained that students of the Qurʾān, after having acquired sufficient knowledge of Arabic, should directly work with the text itself instead of reading commentaries on it. The Qurʾān, he argued, is perfectly understandable to any serious student with knowledge of Arabic, just like it was understandable to its first recipients; to the learned scholar, even those parts that are usually considered unclear (mutashābih), ... In seeking an explanation for Qurʾānic verses, Shāh Walī Allāh argued, one should not follow a particular school, be it of exegesis, grammar, or theology, but prefer the interpretation that is closest to the literal meaning (ẓāhir al-maʿnā)..
  32. ^ a b Waliullah, Shah (2020). Ḥujjat Allah Al Baligha. Brill. p. 194. ISBN 9789004444775.
  33. ^ Muhammad Mosleh-uddin (2003). Shah Waliullah's Contribution to Hadith Literature: A Critical Study. Aligarh, India: Department of Islamic Studies: Aligarh Muslim University. pp. 94, 95. Shah Waliullah disagreed with the Ash'arite scholars and said, "The groups agreed that Allah is living, knowing, willing, powerful, speaking and they said that there is a difference between those seven Attibutes and (other Attributes) like mercy (Rahmah), anger (Ghadhab) and generorsity (Jood) in this respect. While others said that seeing and hearing were two independent Attributes." In refusing the faith of Ash'arite the Shah said, "The earlier pious were unanimous in believing in Allah's Attributes according to His wish and as He obligated it (to the men) to declare Him as dissimilar with the creatures by His verse, "Nothing is like Him." And whoever obligates the opposite thought he contradicts the way of earlier pious. I say that there is no difference among the hearing, seeing, having power, laughing, speaking and Istiwa (existing upon the Arsh)."
  34. ^ a b K. Hermansen, Marcia (1996). "Chapter 40: Belief in the Divine Attributes". The Conclusive Argument from God: Shāh Walī Allāh of Delhi's Ḥujjat Allāh al-Bāligha. Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill Publishers. p. 193. ISBN 978-90-04-10298-9.
  35. ^ a b c Dr. Mubarak Ali, “Almiyah-e-Tarikh”, ch. 9 – 10, pp. 95 – 105, Fiction House, Lahore, (2012).
  36. ^ S. Athar Rizvi, “Shah Waliullah and His Times”, p. 227, Ma’rifat Publishing House, Canberra, (1980).
  37. ^ Ayesha Jalal (3 January 2008). Partisans Of Allah: Jihad In South Asia. p. 41.
  38. ^ Al-Ghazali, Muhammad (2004). The socio-political thought of shah wali allah (PDF). India: Adam Publishers. p. 124. ISBN 8174353607. Retrieved 25 October 2021. Hujjat Allah al-Balighah (Arabic), Cairo, 1933 It is the magnum opus of the author which has been universally acknowledged by Muslim scholarship as his most outstanding and epoch-making contribution. It constitutes a highly significant exposition of the Islamic worldview. We shall separately present an introduction to this work in some detail. It was first published in Bareily (India) in 1286 A.H.
  39. ^ a b c d e "Shah Wali Allah (Qutb al-Din Ahmad al-Rahim) (1703-62)". Muslim Philosophy. Retrieved 5 April 2015.
  40. ^ Virani, Shafique (2019). "Hierohistory in Qāḍī l-Nuʿmān's Foundation of Symbolic Interpretation (Asās al-Taʾwīl): The Birth of Jesus". Studies in Islamic Historiography: 147–169. doi:10.1163/9789004415294_007. ISBN 9789004415294. S2CID 214047322.
  41. ^ Nigel Kelly, "The History and Culture of Pakistan," 2018.
  42. ^ K.J. Ahmed, Hundred Great Muslims, Library of Islam, 1987.
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