حشو (لغويات) - ويكيبيديا

في اللغويات، الحشو أو التوقف المؤقت أو التردد خلال الكلام هو صوت أو كلمة تصدر من المتحدثين خلال حوار معين للإشارة إلى أنهم يتوقفون مؤقتًا ليفكروا بما سيقولونه.^[1]^[2] (يجب عدم الخلط بينها وبين أسماء العناصر النائبة، مثل thingamajig وwhatchamacallit وwhosawhatsa وwhats'isface، والتي تشير إلى أشياء أو أشخاص تم نسيان أسمائهم مؤقتًا أو غير ذات صلة أو غير معروفة.) يندرج الحشو تحت فئة اللغة الصيغية، للغات الأخرى أصوات حشو مميزة مختلفة. لمصطلح الحشو أيضًا استخدام مختلف في الوصف النحوي لتركيبات wh-motion.

الاستخدام

المحادثة هي تبادل اطراف الحديث بين شخصين أو مجموعة من الاشخاص، مما يعني أنه كلما أراد شخص ما التحدث وسمع توقفا، فانهم يفعلون نفس الشيء. تشير الوقفات الزمنية عادةً إلى أن دور شخص ما قد انتهى، مما قد يؤدي إلى حدوث ارتباك عندما لا ينتهي شخص ما من التفكير ولكنه يتوقف مؤقتًا ليفكر؛ من أجل منع هذا الإرباك، سيستخدمون الحشو مثل um، er، أو uh.^[1]^[3] يشير استخدام كلمة حشو إلى أن الشخص الآخر يجب أن يستمر في الاستماع بدلاً من التحدث.^[4]

تتضمن كلمات الحشو بشكل عام القليل من المحتوى المعجمي أو قد لا تتضمن أي محتوى معجمي، ولكن بدلاً من ذلك تقدم أدلة للمستمع حول كيفية التفاعل مع ما قاله المتحدث.^[5] قد تتغير الكلمات المستخدمة من قبل الناس (مثل الاستخدام المتزايدلكلمة like ومعناها مثل)، ولكن المعنى والسبب وراء استخدام الناس لهم لن يتغير.

في اللغة الإنجليزية

تعد أصوات الحشو الأكثر استخداما في الإنجليزية الأمريكية هي ah أو uh ‎/ʌ/‏ وum ‎/ʌm/‏ (er ‎/ɜː/‏ and erm ‎/ɜːm/‏ في الإنجليزية البريطانية).^[6] خاصةً بين المتحدثين الأصغر سنًا، الحشو "like"،^[7]

"you know"، "I mean"، "actually"، "so"، "basically"، "right", من بين الأكثر تقبلا. وصف كريستوفر هيتشنز استخدام كلمة «مثل» كعلامة للخطاب أو وقفة صوتية كمثال شائع على «إضفاء الطابع الكاليفورني على حديث الشباب الأمريكي»،^[8] وانتشارها مؤخرًا عبر اللهجات الإنجليزية الأخرى عبر وسائل الإعلام.

في لغات أخرى

In Afrikaans, ah, um, and uh are common fillers (um, and uh being in common with English).
In American Sign Language, UM can be signed with open-8 held at the chin, palm in, the eyebrows down (similar to FAVORITE); or bilateral symmetric bent-V, palm out, repeated axial rotation of wrist (similar to QUOTE).
في Arabic, يعني yaʿni ("means") and والله wallāh(i) ("by God") are common fillers. In Moroccan Arabic, زعمة z3ma ("like") is a common filler, as well as ewa (so).^[9]^[10] In Iraqi Arabic, shisma ("what's its name") is a filler.^[11]
In Armenian, բան ("thing"), Միգուցե, ("maybe"), էլի ("c'mon") and ոնց որ ("as if") are common fillers.*
In Bengali, ইয়ে (yay and thuri ("..er..that is") are common fillers.
In Bislama, ah is the common filler.
In Bulgarian, common fillers are ъ (uh), амии (amii, 'well'), тъй (tui, 'so'), така (taka, 'thus'), добре (dobre, 'well'), такова (takova, 'this') and значи (znachi, 'it means'), нали (nali, 'right').
In Cantonese, speakers often say 即係 zik1 hai6 ("that is to say"; "meaning") and 噉 gam2 ("so; then") as fillers.
In Catalan, eh ‎/ə/‏, doncs ("so"), llavors ("therefore"), o sigui ("it means"), saps? ("you know"?) and diguem-ne ("say") are common fillers.
In Croatian, the words ovaj (literally "this one", but the meaning is lost) and dakle ("so"), and znači ("meaning", "it means") are frequent.
In Czech, fillers are called slovní vata, meaning "word cotton/padding", or parasitické výrazy, meaning "parasitic expressions". The most frequent fillers are čili, tak or takže ("so"), prostě ("simply"), jako ("like").
In Danish, øh is one of the most common fillers.
In Dhivehi, aney, mee, ehkala, dhen and alhey (“aww”) are some common fillers.
In Dutch, ehm, and dus ("thus") are some of the more common fillers. Also eigenlijk ("actually"), zo ("so"), allez ("come on") and zeg maar ("so to say") in Netherlandic Dutch, nou ("well") or (a)wel ("well") in Belgian Dutch, weet je? ("you know?") etc.
In Esperanto, do ("therefore") is the most common filler.
In Estonian, nii ("so") is one of the most common fillers.
I,n Filipino, ah, eh, ay, and ano ("what"), parang ("like"), diba? ("isn't it right?"), ayun ("that's") are the most common fillers.
In Finnish, niinku ("like"), tuota, and öö are the most common fillers. Swearing is also used as a filler often, especially among youth. The most common swear word for that is vittu, which is a word for female genitalia.
In French, euh ‎/ø/‏ is most common; other words used as fillers include quoi ("what"), bah, ben ("well"), tu vois ("you see"), t'vois c'que j'veux dire? ("you see what I mean?"), tu sais, t'sais ("you know"), eh bien (roughly "well", as in "Well, I'm not sure"), and du coup (roughly "suddenly"). Outside Franc,e other expressions are t'sais veux dire? ("y'know what I mean?"; Québec), or allez une fois ("go one time"; especially in Brussels, not in Wallonia). Additional filler words used by youngsters include genre ("kind"), comme ("like"), and style ("style"; "kind").
In German, traditional filler words include äh ‎/ɛː/‏, hm, so ‎/zoː/‏, tja, halt, and eigentlich ("actually"). So-called modal particles share some of the features of filler words, but they actually modify the sentence meaning.
In Greek, ε (e), εμ (em), λοιπόν (lipon, "so") and καλά (kala, "good") are common fillers.
In Hebrew, אֶה (eh) is the most common filler. אֶם (em) is also quite common. Millennials and the younger Generation X speakers commonly use כאילו (ke'ilu, the Hebrew version of "like"). Additional filler words include זתומרת (zt'omeret, short for זאת אומרת zot omeret "that means"), אז (az, "s,o"), and בקיצור (bekitsur, "in short"). Use of fillers of Arabic origin such as יענו (yaʿanu, a mispronunciation of the Arabic يعني, yaʿani) is also common.
In Hindi, मतलब (matlab, "it means"), क्या कहते हैं (kya kehte hain, "what do you say"), वो ना (woh na, "that") and ऐसा है। (aisā hai, "what it is") are some word fillers. Sound fillers include हूँ (hoon, [ɦuːm̩]), अ (a, [ə]),आ (aa, [äː]).
In Hungarian, filler sound is ő, common filler words include hát, nos (well..,.) and asszongya (a variant of azt mondja, which means "it says here..."). Among intellectuals, ha úgy tetszik (if you like) is used as filler.
In Icelandic, a common filler is hérna ("here"). Þúst, a contraction of þú veist ("you know"), is popular among younger speakers.
In Indonesian, anu and apa sih are among the most common fillers.
In Irish, abair ‎/ˈabˠəɾʲ/‏ ("say"), bhoil ‎/wɛlʲ/‏ ("well"), and era ‎/ˈɛɾˠə/‏ are common fillers, along with emm as in Hiberno-English.
In Italian, common fillers include ehm ("um", "uh"), allora ("well then", "so"), tipo ("like"), ecco ("there"), cioè ("actually", "that is to say", "rather"), and be' ("well", "so"; most likely a shortening of bene or ebbene, which are themselves often used as filler words).
In Japanese, common fillers include ええと (ēto, or "um"), あの (ano, literally "that over there", used as "um"), ま (ma, or "well"), そう (sō, used as "hmmm"), and ええ (ē, a surprise reaction, with tone and duration indicating positive/negative).
In Kannada, matte for "also", enappa andre for "the matter is" are common fillers.
In Korean, 응 (eung), 어 (eo), 그 (geu), and 음 (eum) are commonly used as fillers.
In Kyrgyz, анан (anan, "then", "so"), баягы (bayağı, "that"), жанагы (janağı, "that"), ушуреки (uşureki, "this"), эме (eme, "um"), are common fillers.
In Lithuanian, nu, am, žinai ("you know"), ta prasme ("meaning"), tipo ("like") are some of common fillers.
In Malay, speakers often use words and phrases such as apa nama (literally, "what name") or itu ("that") as common fillers.
In Malayalam, അതായതു (athayathu, "that means...") and ennu vechaal ("then...") are common.
In Maltese and Maltese English, mela ("then"), or just la, is a common filler.
In Mandarin Chinese, speakers often say 那個; 那个 (pronounced nàge/nèige). Other common fillers are (بالصينية: 就) and (بالصينية: 好像).
In Mongolian, одоо (odoo, "now") and нөгөө (nögöö, "that") are common fillers.
In Nepali, माने (maane, "meaning"), चैने (chaine), चैं (chai), हैन (haina, "No?") are commonly used as fillers.
In Norwegian, common fillers are eh, altso/altså, på ein måte / på en måte ("in away"), berre/bare ("just") ikkje sant / ikke sant (literally "not true?", meaning "don't you agree?", "right?", "no kidding" or "exactly")l, vel ("well"), liksom ("like") and er det ("is it", "it is"). In Bergen, sant ("true") is often used instead of ikkje/ikke sant. In the region of Trøndelag, ‎/ʃø/‏^[12] (comes from skjønner du which means "you see/understand)", "as you can see/understand") is also a common filler.
In Persian, ببین (bebin, "you see"), چیز (chiz, "thing"), and مثلا (masalan, "for instance") are commonly used filler words. As well as in Arabic and Urdu, يعني (yaʿni, "I mean") is also used in Persian. Also, اه eh is a common filler in Persian.
In Portuguese, é, hum, então ("so"), tipo ("like") and bem ("well") are the most common fillers.
In Polish, the most common filler sound is yyy ‎/ɨ/‏ and also eee ‎/ɛ/‏ (both like English um) and while common, its use is frowned upon. Other examples include, no ‎/nɔ/‏ (like English well), wiesz ‎/vjeʂ/‏ ("you know").
In Punjabi, مطلب (मतलब, mat̤lab, "it means") is a common filler.
In Romanian, deci ‎/detʃʲ/‏ ("therefore") is common, especially in school, and ă ‎/ə/‏ is also very common (can be lengthened according to the pause in speech, rendered in writing as ăăă), whereas păi ‎/pəj/‏ is widely used by almost anyone. A modern filler has gained popularity among the youths – gen ‎/dʒɛn/‏, analogous to the English "like", literally translated as "type".
In Russian, fillers are called слова-паразиты (slova-parazity, "parasite words"); the most common are э-э (è-è, "eh"), вот (vot, "here it is"), это (èto, "this"), того (togo, "that kind, sort of"), (ну) такое ((nu) takoye, "some kind [of this]"), ну (nu, "well, so"), значит (značit, "I mean, kind of, like"), так (tak, "so"), как его (kak ego, "what's it [called]"), типа (tipa, "kinda"), как бы (kak by, "[just] like, sort of"), and понимаешь? (ponimayesh, "understand?, you know, you see").
In Serbian, значи (znači, "means"), па (pa, "so"), мислим (mislim, "i think") and овај (ovaj, "this") are common fillers.
In Slovak, oné ("that"), tento ("this"), proste ("simply"), or akože ("it's like...") are used as fillers. The Hungarian izé (or izí in its Slovak pronunciation) can also be heard, especially in parts of the country with a large Hungarian population. Ta is a filler typical of Eastern Slovak and one of the most parodied features.
In Slovene, pač ("indeed", "just", "merely"), a ne? ("right?"), no ("well"), v bistvu ("in fact"), and pravzaprav ("actually") are some of the most common fillers.
In Spanish, fillers are called muletillas. Some of the most common in American Spanish are e, em, este (roughly equivalent to uhm, literally means "this"), and o sea (roughly equivalent to "I mean", literally means "or be it").^[13] In Spai,n the previous fillers are also used, but ¿Vale? ("right?") and ¿no? are very common too. and occasionally pues ("well") is used. Younger speakers there often use en plan (meaning "as", "like" or "in [noun] mode"). The Argentine filler word che became the nickname of rebel Ernesto "Che" Guevara, by virtue of his frequent use of it. Other possible filled pauses in Spanish are: a, am, bueno, como, and others.^[14]
In Swedish, fillers are called utfyllnadsord; some of the most common are öhm or öh, ja ("yes"), ehm or eh (for example eh jag vet inte) or ba (comes from bara, which means "only"), asså or alltså ("therefore", "thus"), va (comes from vad, which means "what"), and liksom and typ (both similar to the English "like").
In Tamil, paatheenga-na ("if you see...") and apparam ("then...") are common.
In Telugu, ఇక్కడ ఏంటంటే (ikkada entante, "what's here is...") and తర్వాత (tarwatha, "then...") are common and there are numerous like this.
In Turkish, yani ("meaning..."), şey ("thing"), işte ("that is"), and falan ("as such", "so on") are common fillers.
In Ukrainian, е (e, similar to "um"), ну (nu, "well"), і (i, "and"), цей (tsey, "this"), той-во (toy-vo, "this one") are common fillers.
In Urdu, یعنی (yani, "meaning..."), فلانا فلانا (flana flana, "this and that" or "blah blah"), ہاں ہاں (haan haan, "yeah yeah") and اچھا (acha, "ok") are also common fillers.
In Vietnamese (Tiếng Việt), "ơ" or "à" (surprise); "ý là" (I mean);...
In Welsh (Cymraeg), 'dê or yndê, from onid e — ‘Is it not so?’ — is used as a filler, and in a similar way, especially in southern dialects t'mod and ch'mod (abbreviations of rwyt ti'n gwybod and rydych chi'n gwybod — the singular and plural/respectful forms of ‘you know’) along with t'wel(d) and ch'wel(d) (abbreviations of rwyt ti'n gweld and rydych chi'n gweld — ‘you see’); 'lly (from felly — ‘so/such/like/in that way’, used in northern dialects) ; iawn (‘alright/right’) is used as a filler at the beginning, middle or end of sentences ; o'r gorau — used loosely to mean ‘alright’ ; ’na ni, an abbreviation of dyna ni — ‘there we are’; ym… and y… are used similarly to the English ‘um…’ and ‘uh…’.

انظر أيضًا

المراجع

^ ^ا ^ب Juan, Stephen (2010). "Why do we say 'um', 'er', or 'ah' when we hesitate in speaking?" نسخة محفوظة 2018-07-31 على موقع واي باك مشين.
^ Tottie، Gunnel (2016). "Planning what to say: Uh and um among the pragmatic markers". في Kaltenbock، Gunther؛ Keizer، Evelien؛ Lohmann، Arne (المحررون). Outside the Clause: Form and Function of Extra-Clausal Constituents. ص. 97–122.
^ Crible، L؛ Pascual، E (2020). "Combinations of discourse markers with repairs and repetitions in English, French and Spanish". Journal of Pragmatics: 156, 54–67. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2022-04-22.
^ Curzan، A؛ Adams، M (2014). How English works: A linguistic introduction. Pearson. ص. 253–256. ISBN:978-0205032280.
^ Ph. D., Rhetoric and English; M. A., Modern English and American Literature; B. A., English. "Um, Is This, You Know, a Filler Word?". ThoughtCo (بالإنجليزية). Archived from the original on 2022-04-22. Retrieved 2020-03-28.
^ BORTFELD & al. (2001). "Disfluency Rates in Conversation: Effects of Age, Relationship, Topic, Role, and Gender" (PDF). Language and Speech. ج. 44 ع. 2: 123–147. DOI:10.1177/00238309010440020101. PMID:11575901. مؤرشف من الأصل (PDF) في 2021-10-04.
^ Winterman, Denise (28 Sep 2010). "It's, like, so common". بي بي سي نيوز (بالإنجليزية البريطانية). Archived from the original on 2022-04-22. Retrieved 2017-12-17.
^ Hitchens, Christopher. "Christopher Hitchens on 'Like'". Vanity Fair (بالإنجليزية). Archived from the original on 2022-04-22. Retrieved 2017-12-17.
^ "yanni". UniLang. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2022-04-22. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2017-12-17.
^ "Egyptian Arabic Dialect Course". Egyptianarabiccourse.blogspot.com. 17 مارس 2008. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2022-04-22. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2019-04-08.
^ Parkinson، Dilworth B.؛ Farwaneh، Samira (يناير 2003). Perspectives on Arabic Linguistics XV. ISBN:9027247595. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2022-12-26. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2019-04-08.
^ "X Trøndersk - NTNU". www.ntnu.edu. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2022-04-22. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2020-08-26.
^ Erichsen، Gerald. "Filler Words and Vocal Pauses". Spanish.about.com. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2016-10-08. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2019-04-08.
^ Erker, Daniel; Bruso, Joanna (25 Jul 2017). "Uh, bueno, em … : Filled pauses as a site of contact-induced change in Boston Spanish". Language Variation and Change (بالإنجليزية). 29 (2): 205–244. DOI:10.1017/S0954394517000102. ISSN:0954-3945. Archived from the original on 2022-04-22.

روابط خارجية

لماذا يقول الناس «أمم» و«إيه» عندما يترددون في كلامهم؟، نيو ساينتست، 6 مايو 1995 (الاشتراك مطلوب)
نقلا
نينو أميريدزه، بويد إتش ديفيز، ومارجريت ماكلاغان، محررون. الحشو والإيقاف المؤقت والعناصر النائبة. دراسات نمطية في اللغة 93، جون بنجامينز، أمستردام / فيلادلفيا، 2010. استعراض

[مولد_تلقائيا1-1] ا ^ب Juan, Stephen (2010). "Why do we say 'um', 'er', or 'ah' when we hesitate in speaking?" نسخة محفوظة 2018-07-31 على موقع واي باك مشين.

[tottie2016-2] Tottie، Gunnel (2016). "Planning what to say: Uh and um among the pragmatic markers". في Kaltenbock، Gunther؛ Keizer، Evelien؛ Lohmann، Arne (المحررون). Outside the Clause: Form and Function of Extra-Clausal Constituents. ص. 97–122.

[3] Crible، L؛ Pascual، E (2020). "Combinations of discourse markers with repairs and repetitions in English, French and Spanish". Journal of Pragmatics: 156, 54–67. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2022-04-22.

[4] Curzan، A؛ Adams، M (2014). How English works: A linguistic introduction. Pearson. ص. 253–256. ISBN:978-0205032280.

[5] Ph. D., Rhetoric and English; M. A., Modern English and American Literature; B. A., English. "Um, Is This, You Know, a Filler Word?". ThoughtCo (بالإنجليزية). Archived from the original on 2022-04-22. Retrieved 2020-03-28.

[6] BORTFELD & al. (2001). "Disfluency Rates in Conversation: Effects of Age, Relationship, Topic, Role, and Gender" (PDF). Language and Speech. ج. 44 ع. 2: 123–147. DOI:10.1177/00238309010440020101. PMID:11575901. مؤرشف من الأصل (PDF) في 2021-10-04.

[7] Winterman, Denise (28 Sep 2010). "It's, like, so common". بي بي سي نيوز (بالإنجليزية البريطانية). Archived from the original on 2022-04-22. Retrieved 2017-12-17.

[8] Hitchens, Christopher. "Christopher Hitchens on 'Like'". Vanity Fair (بالإنجليزية). Archived from the original on 2022-04-22. Retrieved 2017-12-17.

[9] "yanni". UniLang. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2022-04-22. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2017-12-17.

[10] "Egyptian Arabic Dialect Course". Egyptianarabiccourse.blogspot.com. 17 مارس 2008. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2022-04-22. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2019-04-08.

[11] Parkinson، Dilworth B.؛ Farwaneh، Samira (يناير 2003). Perspectives on Arabic Linguistics XV. ISBN:9027247595. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2022-12-26. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2019-04-08.

[12] "X Trøndersk - NTNU". www.ntnu.edu. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2022-04-22. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2020-08-26.

[13] Erichsen، Gerald. "Filler Words and Vocal Pauses". Spanish.about.com. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2016-10-08. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2019-04-08.

[14] Erker, Daniel; Bruso, Joanna (25 Jul 2017). "Uh, bueno, em … : Filled pauses as a site of contact-induced change in Boston Spanish". Language Variation and Change (بالإنجليزية). 29 (2): 205–244. DOI:10.1017/S0954394517000102. ISSN:0954-3945. Archived from the original on 2022-04-22.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]