Honda Group, Colombia

Honda Group
Stratigraphic range: Late Oligocene-Late Miocene typically Middle Miocene (Laventan) ~13.8–11.8 Ma PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N ↓
Statue of a prehistoric ground sloth from the Honda Group in Villavieja, Huila
Type	Geological group
Sub-units	Villavieja Fm.  Cerro Colorado Mb.  Baraya Mb. La Victoria Fm.  Cerbatana Mb.
Underlies	Gigante Group  Neiva Fm.
Overlies	Payandé Group  Barzalosa Fm., Saldaña Fm., Santa Teresa Fm.
Thickness	up to 5,000 m (16,000 ft)
Lithology
Primary	Conglomerate, sandstone
Other	Claystone, siltstone, volcanoclastic sediments
Location
Coordinates	5°11′31″N 74°43′21″W / 5.19194°N 74.72250°W / 5.19194; -74.72250
Region	Huila, Tolima, Cundinamarca Middle Magdalena Valley, Upper Magdalena Valley Central & Eastern Ranges Andes
Country	Colombia
Extent	~250 km (160 mi)
Type section
Named for	Honda
Named by	Hettner
Location	Honda (original) Tatacoa Desert (redefined)
Year defined	1892
Coordinates	3°14′04″N 75°12′15″W / 3.23444°N 75.20417°W / 3.23444; -75.20417
Approximate paleocoordinates	3°06′N 72°24′W / 3.1°N 72.4°W / 3.1; -72.4
Region	Tolima (original) Huila (redefined)
Country	Colombia
Thickness at type section	3,255 m (10,679 ft)
Paleogeography of Northern South America 20 Ma, by Ron Blakey

The Honda Group (Spanish: Grupo Honda, Tsh, Ngh) is a geological group of the Upper and Middle Magdalena Basins and the adjacent Central and Eastern Ranges of the Colombian Andes. The group, in older literature also defined as formation, is in its present-day type section in the Tatacoa Desert in the department of Huila subdivided into two main formations; La Victoria and Villavieja.

The group was originally defined in and named after Honda, Tolima, but has been redefined based on the many fossil finds in the Tatacoa Desert, 250 kilometres (160 mi) to the south. In the original type section of its occurrence, the 3,255 metres (10,679 ft) thick group is subdivided into three formations, from old to young; Cambrás, San Antonio and Los Limones.

The group dates to the Neogene period; in its broadest definition from the Late Oligocene to Late Miocene, and in the redefined type section restricted to the Laventan age of the South American Land Mammal Ages (SALMA), equivalent to the Middle Miocene Serravallian epoch.

The Honda Group is a Konzentrat-Lagerstätte at the fossiliferous La Venta site in the department of Huila and eastern Tolima and hosts one of the richest formations containing Miocene fauna worldwide.

The group was first defined by Hettner in 1892 in the area of the town after which it is named; Honda, Tolima.^[1] In 1942 and 1946, the group was defined as a formation by Royo and Gómez. The first author who used the name Honda for a group, was American zoologist who studied the La Venta fauna in detail, Ruben Arthur Stirton. Subdivisions of the group have been proposed by many different authors with high detail in the different beds.^[2] Names as "Monkey Beds", "Fish Beds" and "Unit above Fish Beds" have been colloquially used to designate certain stratigraphic units based on their fossil content.^[3][4] The most accepted definition of the group, formations and members was proposed by Villarroel et al. in 1996 to simplify the stratigraphy in a regional sense solving the excessive subdivision into 19 units by Guerrero et al. (1994).^[5]

Today, the sediments of the Honda Group are exposed in the Middle (Valle Medio del Magdalena, VMM) and Upper Magdalena Valley (Valle Superior del Magdalena, VSM) in an intermontane valley between the Central Ranges in the west and the Eastern Ranges in the east. The valley in between the two major orogenic chains is filled by the Magdalena River, the longest river of Colombia. The Upper Magdalena Valley geologically is subdivided into the Neiva Sub-basin with the Girardot Sub-basin of the southernmost Middle Magdalena Valley to the north, divided by the Natagaima Arch.^[6] The Neiva Sub-basin is bound by the Chusma Fault in the west and to the east by the west-verging Garzón Fault.^[7] The Mulato-Getudo Fault possibly underlies the Honda Group south of the La Miel River.^[8] The Tatacoa Desert, where the type section of the Honda Group has been redefined is an unusually dry region in Colombia, caused by a mountain induced rain-shadow effect. In Middle Miocene times, the geography was more comparable to the present eastern foothills of the Andes.^[9]

The tectonic history of the three mountain chains of Colombia, from west to east, the Western, Central and Eastern Ranges has been studied in detail. The Western and Central Ranges were the first to be exhumed in the Paleogene, with minor uplifts in the Eastern Ranges at this age. The onset of the regional uplift of the Eastern Ranges is dated around the Middle Miocene, with an increased rate of exhumation between 12 and 3 Ma.^[10] This caused a segmentation of the current Magdalena Basins and the Llanos Basin to the east, previously part of a larger foreland basin to the east of the Central Ranges.^[11] The León Formation in the Llanos Basin provides the first indication of the tectonic uplift of the Eastern Ranges, isolating the Llanos Basin from the Magdalena Valley.^[12]

The Honda Group unconformably overlies in parts the volcanic deposits of the Prado Member,^[4] Barzalosa Formation of the Payandé Group, and in other parts the Saldaña,^[13] and Santa Teresa Formations.^[14] The unit is overlain by the Neiva Formation of the Gigante Group.^[3][15] The presence of a hiatus between the Honda Group and the Barzalosa Formation has been suggested.^[16] The group is characterised by two main formations; the lower La Victoria Formation and upper Villavieja Formation. Previously, the La Dorada Formation has been named as a subdivision of the Honda Group, while other authors define that unit as a member. Other names for members and formations are Cerbatana Member, also published as Cervetana Member, named after Quebrada La Cerbatana, Las Mesitas Formation, El Líbano Formation, Baraya Volcanic Member, named after Baraya, and Cerro Colorado Red Bed Member.^[17] The Perico Member of the La Dorada Formation has been made equivalent to the La Victoria Formation, as well as the El Líbano Formation.^[4]

This formation was first defined by Guerrero in his Master's thesis (1991) and further refined in his doctoral thesis in 1993. The type locality of the La Victoria Formation has been set in the La Venta area and the formation is named after the town of La Victoria, at 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) north-northeast of the urban centre of Villavieja. The formation, restricted to the Neiva Sub-basin,^[18] consists mainly of sandstones, conglomeratic sandstones and conglomerates (75%) with intercalated claystones and siltstones (25%).^[5]

The upper part of the La Victoria Formation, underlying the Villavieja Formation, is characterised by a 45 metres (148 ft) section of conglomerates, designated the Cerbatana Member or Cerbatana Conglomerates. The conglomerate shows trough-cross lamination and imbrication of clasts in a predominantly matrix-supported sequence, with minor clast-supported sections. The base of the conglomerate marks an erosional surface into the underlying silt and clay beds. The clasts of the conglomerate are mostly milky quartz, chert and volcanic in origin, with diameters averaging around 7 centimetres (2.8 in) with a maximum of 15 centimetres (5.9 in). Conglomeratic and medium to coarse-grained sandstone banks, with a similar grain composition as the conglomerates, up to 2 metres (79 in) thick are intercalated between the conglomeratic sections. The sandstones are cemented by calcium carbonate in hardgrounds that sometimes form rounded concretions. The claystones and siltstones that are less commonly found in the La Victoria Formations range in thickness from 1 to 11 metres (3.3 to 36.1 ft) and show reddish-brown, greenish-grey and greyish colourations.^[19]

The name Villavieja Formation was first proposed by Wellman in 1968 as a member of the Honda Formation. Two years later, the author elevated the rank to a formation, as part of the Honda Group. The formation takes its name from the municipality Villavieja, Huila, 35 kilometres (22 mi) to the north-northeast of the departmental capital Neiva. The type locality is situated on the right bank of the Magdalena River in the Eastern Ranges of the Colombian Andes.^[20]

The contact between the Villavieja Formation and the underlying La Victoria Formation is concordant.^[18] The basal part of the Villavieja Formation comprises siltstones and claystones that also form the bulk of the formation with 75 percent. The remaining quarter is composed of conglomeratic sandstones. The thickness of the siltstones and claystones can exceed 8 metres (26 ft) and have interspersed fine- to medium-grained 10 centimetres (3.9 in) thin sandstone beds. The fine sediments of the Villavieja Formation are coloured greenish, reddish-brown or bluish-grey and display weathering patterns in so-called "cauliflower erosion" structures. The light grey coarser beds, up to conglomeratic sandstone size, do not exceed 2.5 metres (8.2 ft) in thickness and commonly show a lateral transition with the silt- and claystones. The Baraya Member of the Villavieja Formation shows thin yellowish and reddish brown sandstone and siltstone levels with volcaniclastic grains.^[20]

The Honda Group extends for approximately 250 kilometres (160 mi) from the Upper to the Middle Magdalena Basin and is exposed in various locations along the right and left banks of the Magdalena River. Outcrops along the road between Girardot and Agua de Dios, Cundinamarca show a lower sequence of thick beds of greenish-yellow feldspar- and mica-rich conglomeratic sandstones, intercalated with reddish claystones and an upper level of alternating medium-to-coarse grained quartz arenites with low-angle cross stratification. These sandstones are intercalated with thick layers of fissile claystones with common calcareous sandstone concretions.^[21] Sediments of the Honda Group restrict the course of the Sumapaz River to a narrow valley, close to its confluence with the Magdalena River.^[22]

The majority of the municipality Prado, Tolima rests upon sediments of the Honda Group.^[23] In the Middle Magdalena Basin and the eastern flank of the Central and the western flank of the Eastern Ranges, the group is subdivided into the Los Limones, San Antonio and Cambrás Formations. The total thickness of these formations in the northern original type section of the Honda Group reaches 3,255 metres (10,679 ft),^[1] while a total thickness of 5,000 metres (16,000 ft) has been registered.^[15]

Thanks to the fossil abundance of the Honda Group at La Venta, the geological period of the sediments has received a separate name in the South American Mammal Ages (SALMA); Laventan, ranging from 13.8 to 11.8 Ma, as the only SALMA age defined north of the equator and in Colombia.^[24] The age of the Villavieja Formation has been estimated to be between 17.0 and 12.1 Ma,^[20] while the stratigraphically lower La Victoria Formation is dated at 13.82 to 12.38 Ma (Serravallian), based on fission track and volcanic analysis and paleomagnetic research.^[18]

The Honda Group is laterally time equivalent with the lower part of the Real Formation in the central and northern Middle Magdalena Basin,^[25] the lower part of the León Formation of the Llanos Basin,^[26] the upper range of the Ciénaga de Oro Formation of the Lower Magdalena Basin,^[27] and the Caja and Diablo Formations of the Llanos foothills.^[28]

The Honda Group has been deposited in a fluvial environment, with the lower part of the La Victoria Formation in a meandering setting, while the upper part was formed in a braided river system. The paleocurrent was from the west to the east and east-southeast.^[19] The overlying predominantly finer grained Villavieja Formation was deposited in a meandering setting of a smaller size than those of the older La Victoria Formation. Paleocurrent analysis of the sediments in the Baraya and Cerro Colorado Members has revealed a similar flow direction as the La Victoria paleorivers, while the upper part of the Cerro Colorado Member shows an opposite trend to the west.^[20] The volcanic clasts of the formations have as provenance the Central Range volcanism, of which the volcaniclastics in the Honda Group mark its onset.^[29][30]

The depositional boundary for the Honda Group in the east is formed by the reverse Prado-Suárez and Cambrás-Salinas-Cambao Faults.^[31]

Analysis of the "Monkey Beds" of the Honda Group, provided estimates of annual precipitation levels between 1,500 and 2,000 millimetres (59 and 79 in). Today, these levels of rainfall are associated with the transition between savanna and forest environments in lowland South America. The vegetation of the La Venta fossil assemblage was diverse due to the different biomes of the depositional environment; meandering and braided river systems in a setting at lower altitudes than the present-day elevation of more than 400 metres (1,300 ft) above mean sea level. It has been suggested that the vegetational cover of the Honda Group sedimentary sequence was not a continuous canopy forest, yet a complex pattern of different flora ecosystems. The evergreen Amazonian foothill forests of today would therefore postdate the uplift of the Eastern Ranges of the Andes.^[32] Based on vegetational and grazer diversity analysis of the La Venta fauna, it has been suggested the ecosystem resembled more that of Africa and Asia than of the modern Neotropics.^[33] Research of the paleosols found in various levels within the Honda Group suggests the presence of arid areas in close proximity to pluvial parts.^[34]

In the oil-producing Upper Magdalena Basin, the Honda Group is one of the reservoir formations, next to the more important Caballos and Monserrate Formations.^[35][36] Shales of the Honda Group function as seal rock for certain oilfields in the Upper Magdalena Basin.^[37] In the Tello Field in the basin, the Honda Group forms the overburden rock for the producing Monserrate reservoirs.^[38]

The Honda Group is the richest fossiliferous stratigraphic unit of Colombia, and one of the most important for the Miocene worldwide. At the La Venta site, numerous fossils of various orders have been recovered and are found still. The site marks a unique ecosystem showing a broad range of biodiversity. La Venta is also an important site as it represents the youngest uniquely South American faunal assemblage before the Great American Biotic Interchange; the result of the uplift of the Isthmus of Panama, of which the initial phase has been dated at around 12 Ma.^[39] This led to a drastic alteration of the South American former island continental fauna. The Sparassodonta formed the dominant carnivorous mammal group in South America during most of the Cenozoic.

In South America, the carnivorous adaptive zone in terrestrial ecosystems was shared with other mammals; terror birds (Phorusrhacoidea), large crocodiles (Sebecidae), large snakes (Madtsoiidae and Boidae), and even occasionally frogs.^[40] The diversity of fossil freshwater fishes and crocodilians at La Venta is the richest assemblage of South America.^[33][41] Fossilised trunks of Goupioxylon sp. have been identified in the Honda Group.^[42]

The genus names Hondadelphys and Hondathentes, and the species epithets of Anadasypus hondanus and Scirrotherium hondaensis refer to the Honda Group. The giant sloth Brievabradys laventensis, the primate Stirtonia tatacoensis (originally described as Kondous laventicus), and the marsupial Micoureus laventicus were named after La Venta, while the primates Miocallicebus villaviejai and Stirtonia victoriae received their species epithets from the formations comprising the Honda Group.

Taxa	Species	Presence	Abundance	Description	Images	Notes
Diclidurus	D. sp.					[43][44] [45][46]
Eumops	E. sp.
Kiotomops	K. lopezi
Lophostoma	L. sp.
Mormopterus	M. colombiensis
Noctilio	N. albiventris			A lesser bulldog bat		[43][47]
Notonycteris	N. magdalenensis					[43][44] [45][46]
	N. sucharadeus
Palynephyllum	P. antimaster
Potamops	P. mascahehenes
Tonatia	T. sp.
Thyroptera	T. lavali			A LaVal's disk-winged bat		[43][47]
	T. robusta
	T. tricolor			A Spix's disk-winged bat

Didelphimorphia

Taxa	Species	Presence	Abundance	Description	Images	Notes
Thylamys	T. colombianus					[48][49][50]
	T. minutus

Microbiotheria

Taxa	Species	Presence	Abundance	Description	Images	Notes
Micoureus	M. laventicus					[48][51]
Pachybiotherium	P. minor

Sparassodonta

Taxa	Species	Presence	Abundance	Description	Images	Notes
Anachlysictis	A. gracilis	Villavieja Formation, La Venta.	A Skull and lower jaw.	A Thylacosmilidae sparassodont.		[48]
Dukecynus	D. magnus	Konzentrat-Lagerstätte, La Venta.	A fragment skull and parts of the humerus and femur.	A sparassodont.		[48]
Hondadelphys	H. fieldsi	La Venta.	A basicranium.	A sparassodont.		[48][52][53]
Lycopsis	L. longirostrus	Duke locality, La Venta.	A nearly complete skeleton.	A sparassodont.		[48][54]

Paucituberculata

Taxa	Species	Presence	Abundance	Description	Images	Notes
Hondathentes	H. cazador					[48][55][56]
Pithiculites	P. chenche

Taxa	Species	Presence	Abundance	Description	Images	Notes
Aotus	A. dindensis					[48][57][58] [59][60][61] [62][63][64] [65][66][67] [68][69][70]
Cebupithecia	C. sarmientoi
Lagonimico	L. conclucatus
Micodon	M. kiotensis
Miocallicebus	M. villaviejai
Mohanamico	M. hershkovitzi
Neosaimiri	N. annectens			(syn. Laventiana annectens)
	N. fieldsi
Nuciruptor	N. rubricae
Patasola	P. magdalenae
Stirtonia	S. tatacoensis			(syn. Kondous laventicus)
	S. victoriae

Taxa	Species	Presence	Abundance	Description	Images	Notes
Hilarcotherium	H. castanedaii					[71]
Granastrapotherium	G. snorki					[72][73][74]
Xenastrapotherium	X. kraglievichi					[72]

Litopterna

Taxa	Species	Presence	Abundance	Description	Images	Notes
Megadolodus	M. molariformis	La Venta, Villavieja Formation.	A left preserved mandibles, limb bones, teeth, vertebrae, pelvis, and ribs	A proterotheriid litoptern.		[72][75] [76][77][78]
Mesolicaphrium	M. sanalfonense	La Victoria and Villavieja Formations	The jaw symphysis, two right mandibular rami, and teeth.	A litoptern.
Neodolodus	N. colombianus	La Victoria and Villavieja Formations.	Right mandibular ramus, teeth, and part of the fore- and hindlimbs	A litoptern.
Proterotheriidae	P. indet.			A litoptern.
Theosodon	T. sp.			A litoptern.
Villarroelia	V. totoyoi	La Victoria Formation.	A partial skull.	A litoptern.

Notoungulata

Taxa	Species	Presence	Abundance	Description	Images	Notes
Cochilius	C. sp.					[79][72] [72][80][81] [82]
Huilatherium	H. pluriplicatum	Konzentrat-Lagerstätte of La Venta.		A leontiniid.
Leontiniidae	L. sp.
Miocochilius	M. anomopodus			An interatheriid.
Pericotoxodon	P. platignathus	La Gaviota locality	Several fossil remains.	A toxodontid.
Toxodontidae	T. sp.

Taxa	Species	Presence	Abundance	Description	Images	Notes
Acarechimys	A. minutissimus					[57][83][84] [85][86][87] [88][89][90] [91][92]
Dolichotinae	D. sp.
Echimyidae	?E. sp.
Eodolichotis	E. elachys
	E. maddeni
Microscleromys	M. cribiphilus
	M. paradoxalis
	M. jacobsi
Neoreomys	N. huilensis
Olenopsis	O. sp.
Prodolichotis	P. guerreroi
	P. pridiana
Rhodanodolichotis	Rhodanodolichotis antepridiana
	R. vucetichae
Ricardomys	R. longidens
Scleromys	Scleromys colombianus
	S. schurmanni
Steiromys	?S. sp.

Taxa	Species	Presence	Abundance	Description	Images	Notes
Potamosiren	P. magdalenensis					[93]

Pilosa

Taxa	Species	Presence	Abundance	Description	Images	Notes
Hapalops	H. sp.					[83]
Brievabradys	B. laventensis					[94][83][95] [96][97] [98][99][100]
Glossotheriopsis	G. pascuali
Huilabradys	H. magdaleniensis
Magdalenabradys	M. confusum
Megalonychidae	M. sp.
Megatheriinae	M. sp.
Neonematherium	N. flabellatum
Neotamandua	N. borealis
Nothrotheriinae	N. sp.

Cingulata

Taxa	Species	Presence	Abundance	Description	Images	Notes
Anadasypus	A. hondanus					[48][83][101] [102][103][104] [105][106]
Boreostemma	B. acostae
	B. gigantea
Dasypodidae	D. sp.
Nanoastegotherium	N. prostatum
Neoglyptatelus	N. originalis
Pedrolypeutes	P. praecursor
Scirrotherium	S. hondaensis

Taxa	Species	Presence	Abundance	Description	Images	Notes
Aramus	A. paludigrus	Konzentrat-Lagerstätte of La Venta.	A nearly complete tibiotarsus bone.	An extinct aramidae bird.		[107]
Galbula	G. hylochoreutes	Konzentrat-Lagerstätte of La Venta	One end of the right humerus.	An extinct Jacamar bird.		[107]
Hoazinoides	H. magdalenae	Konzentrat-Lagerstätte of La Venta	Fragmentary remains, including the back portion of the skull.	An extinct opisthocomidae bird.		[107][108]

Crocodilians

Taxa	Species	Presence	Abundance	Description	Images	Notes
Alligatoridae	Indetermidate.					[74][109][110] [111][112] [113]
Balanerodus	B. logimus
Charactosuchus	C. fieldsi
Eocaiman	E. maddeni
Gavialis	G. sp.
Gryposuchus	G. colombianus					[114]
Langstonia	L. huilensis					[115]
Purussaurus	P. neivensis					[116]
Mourasuchus	M. atopus					[74][109][110] [111][112] [113]
Sebecus	S. sp.

Turtles

Taxa	Species	Presence	Abundance	Description	Images	Notes
Chelus	C. colombiana					[117]
Chelonoidis	C. hesterna					[118]
Mesoclemmys	M. vanegasorum					[119]
Podocnemis	P. medemi					[120]

Snakes

Taxa	Species	Presence	Abundance	Description	Images	Notes
Colombophis	C. portai					[121][122]
Eunectes	?E. stirtoni

Lizards

Taxa	Species	Presence	Abundance	Description	Images	Notes
Dracaena	D. colombiana			(syn. Paradracaena colombiana)		[123]

Frogs

Taxa	Species	Presence	Abundance	Description	Images	Notes
Rhinella	R. marina			a Cane toad		[124]

Group	Fossils	Notes
Fish	Colossoma macropomum, Lepidosiren paradoxa, cf. Acanthicus, Arapaima sp., Brachyplatystoma cf. B. vaillanti, Brachyplatystoma promagdalena, cf. Corydoras sp., Hoplias sp., cf. Hoplosternum, Hydrolycus sp., Phractocephalus hemiliopterus, Serrasalmus sp., Pygocentrus sp., or Pristobrycon sp. (cf. Myletes sp.), Ariidae gen. et. sp. Incertae sedis, Characidae cf. Tetragonopterinae gen. et. sp., Cichlidae gen. et. sp. Incertae sedis, Doradidae gen. et. sp. Incertae sedis 1-3, Loricariidae gen. et. sp. Incertae sedis 1 & 2, Potamotrygonidae	[41][125] [126][127]
Crabs	Sylviocarcinus piriformis	[41]

Stratigraphy of the Llanos Basin and surrounding provinces

Ma	Age	Paleomap	Regional events	Catatumbo	Cordillera	proximal Llanos	distal Llanos	Putumayo	VSM	Environments	Maximum thickness	Petroleum geology	Notes
0.01	Holocene		Holocene volcanism Seismic activity	alluvium								Overburden
1	Pleistocene		Pleistocene volcanism Andean orogeny 3 Glaciations	Guayabo	Soatá Sabana	Necesidad	Guayabo	Gigante Neiva		Alluvial to fluvial (Guayabo)	550 m (1,800 ft) (Guayabo)		[128][129][130][131]
2.6	Pliocene		Pliocene volcanism Andean orogeny 3 GABI		Subachoque
5.3	Messinian		Andean orogeny 3 Foreland		Marichuela			Caimán	Honda				[130][132]
13.5	Langhian		Regional flooding	León	hiatus	Caja	León			Lacustrine (León)	400 m (1,300 ft) (León)	Seal	[131][133]
16.2	Burdigalian		Miocene inundations Andean orogeny 2	C1		Carbonera C1		Ospina		Proximal fluvio-deltaic (C1)	850 m (2,790 ft) (Carbonera)	Reservoir	[132][131]
17.3				C2		Carbonera C2				Distal lacustrine-deltaic (C2)		Seal
19				C3		Carbonera C3				Proximal fluvio-deltaic (C3)		Reservoir
21	Early Miocene		Pebas wetlands	C4		Carbonera C4			Barzalosa	Distal fluvio-deltaic (C4)		Seal
23	Late Oligocene		Andean orogeny 1 Foredeep	C5		Carbonera C5		Orito		Proximal fluvio-deltaic (C5)		Reservoir	[129][132]
25				C6		Carbonera C6				Distal fluvio-lacustrine (C6)		Seal
28	Early Oligocene			C7		C7		Pepino	Gualanday	Proximal deltaic-marine (C7)		Reservoir	[129][132][134]
32	Oligo-Eocene			C8	Usme	C8	onlap			Marine-deltaic (C8)		Seal Source	[134]
35	Late Eocene			Mirador		Mirador				Coastal (Mirador)	240 m (790 ft) (Mirador)	Reservoir	[131][135]
40	Middle Eocene				Regadera				hiatus
45
50	Early Eocene			Socha		Los Cuervos				Deltaic (Los Cuervos)	260 m (850 ft) (Los Cuervos)	Seal Source	[131][135]
55	Late Paleocene		PETM 2000 ppm CO2	Los Cuervos	Bogotá				Gualanday
60	Early Paleocene		SALMA	Barco	Guaduas	Barco		Rumiyaco		Fluvial (Barco)	225 m (738 ft) (Barco)	Reservoir	[128][129][132][131][136]
65	Maastrichtian		KT extinction	Catatumbo	Guadalupe				Monserrate	Deltaic-fluvial (Guadalupe)	750 m (2,460 ft) (Guadalupe)	Reservoir	[128][131]
72	Campanian		End of rifting	Colón-Mito Juan									[131][137]
83	Santonian							Villeta/Güagüaquí
86	Coniacian
89	Turonian		Cenomanian-Turonian anoxic event	La Luna	Chipaque	Gachetá	hiatus			Restricted marine (all)	500 m (1,600 ft) (Gachetá)	Source	[128][131][138]
93	Cenomanian		Rift 2
100	Albian				Une	Une		Caballos		Deltaic (Une)	500 m (1,600 ft) (Une)	Reservoir	[132][138]
113	Aptian			Capacho	Fómeque			Motema	Yaví	Open marine (Fómeque)	800 m (2,600 ft) (Fómeque)	Source (Fóm)	[129][131][139]
125	Barremian		High biodiversity	Aguardiente	Paja					Shallow to open marine (Paja)	940 m (3,080 ft) (Paja)	Reservoir	[128]
129	Hauterivian		Rift 1	Tibú- Mercedes	Las Juntas	hiatus				Deltaic (Las Juntas)	910 m (2,990 ft) (Las Juntas)	Reservoir (LJun)	[128]
133	Valanginian			Río Negro	Cáqueza Macanal Rosablanca					Restricted marine (Macanal)	2,935 m (9,629 ft) (Macanal)	Source (Mac)	[129][140]
140	Berriasian			Girón
145	Tithonian		Break-up of Pangea	Jordán	Arcabuco	Buenavista Batá		Saldaña		Alluvial, fluvial (Buenavista)	110 m (360 ft) (Buenavista)	"Jurassic"	[132][141]
150	Early-Mid Jurassic		Passive margin 2	La Quinta	Montebel Noreán	hiatus				Coastal tuff (La Quinta)	100 m (330 ft) (La Quinta)		[142]
201	Late Triassic			Mucuchachi				Payandé					[132]
235	Early Triassic		Pangea		hiatus							"Paleozoic"
250	Permian
300	Late Carboniferous		Famatinian orogeny						Cerro Neiva ()				[143]
340	Early Carboniferous		Fossil fish Romer's gap		Cuche (355-385)	Farallones ()				Deltaic, estuarine (Cuche)	900 m (3,000 ft) (Cuche)
360	Late Devonian		Passive margin 1	Río Cachirí (360-419)					Ambicá ()	Alluvial-fluvial-reef (Farallones)	2,400 m (7,900 ft) (Farallones)		[140][144][145][146][147]
390	Early Devonian		High biodiversity	Floresta (387-400) El Tíbet						Shallow marine (Floresta)	600 m (2,000 ft) (Floresta)
410	Late Silurian		Silurian mystery
425	Early Silurian			hiatus
440	Late Ordovician		Rich fauna in Bolivia	San Pedro (450-490)		Duda ()
470	Early Ordovician		First fossils		Busbanzá (>470±22) Chuscales Otengá	Guape ()		Río Nevado ()	Hígado () Agua Blanca Venado (470-475)				[148][149][150]
488	Late Cambrian		Regional intrusions	Chicamocha (490-515)	Quetame ()	Ariarí ()		SJ del Guaviare (490-590)	San Isidro ()				[151][152]
515	Early Cambrian		Cambrian explosion										[150][153]
542	Ediacaran		Break-up of Rodinia		pre-Quetame		post-Parguaza		El Barro ()	Yellow: allochthonous basement (Chibcha Terrane) Green: autochthonous basement (Río Negro-Juruena Province)		Basement	[154][155]
600	Neoproterozoic		Cariri Velhos orogeny	Bucaramanga (600-1400)				pre-Guaviare					[151]
800			Snowball Earth										[156]
1000	Mesoproterozoic		Sunsás orogeny			Ariarí (1000)			La Urraca (1030-1100)				[157][158][159][160]
1300			Rondônia-Juruá orogeny			pre-Ariarí	Parguaza (1300-1400)		Garzón (1180-1550)				[161]
1400				pre-Bucaramanga									[162]
1600	Paleoproterozoic						Maimachi (1500-1700)		pre-Garzón				[163]
1800			Tapajós orogeny				Mitú (1800)						[161][163]
1950			Transamazonic orogeny				pre-Mitú						[161]
2200			Columbia
2530	Archean		Carajas-Imataca orogeny										[161]
3100			Kenorland
Sources

Legend

Laventan correlations in South America

Formation	Honda	Honda	Aisol	Cura-Mallín	Pisco	Ipururo	Pebas	Capadare	Urumaco	Inés	Paraná	Map
Basin	VSM	Honda	San Rafael	Caldera	Pisco	Ucayali	Amazon	Falcón		Venezuela	Paraná	Honda Group, Colombia (South America)
Country	Colombia	Bolivia	Argentina	Chile	Peru			Venezuela			Argentina
Boreostemma
Hapalops
Miocochilius
Theosodon
Xenastrapotherium
Mylodontidae
Sparassodonta
Primates
Rodents
Birds
Terror birds
Reptiles
megalodon
Flora
Insects
Environments	Fluvial			Fluvio-deltaic		Fluvio-lacustrine		Fluvio-deltaic			Fluvial	Laventan volcanoclastics Laventan fauna Laventan flora
Volcanic	Yes

• Cretaceous stratigraphy of the central Colombian Eastern Ranges
• Early Cretaceous stratigraphy of Iberia

• Villamil, Tomas (2012). Chronology Relative Sea Level History and a New Sequence Stratigraphic Model for Basinal Cretaceous Facies of Colombia (Report). Society for Sedimentary Geology (SEPM). pp. 161–216.
• García González, Mario; Mier Umaña, Ricardo; Cruz Guevara, Luis Enrique; Vásquez, Mauricio (2009). Informe Ejecutivo - evaluación del potencial hidrocarburífero de las cuencas colombianas (Report). Universidad Industrial de Santander. pp. 1–219.
• Barrero, Dario; Pardo, Andrés; Vargas, Carlos A.; Martínez, Juan F. (2007). Colombian Sedimentary Basins: Nomenclature, Boundaries and Petroleum Geology, a New Proposal (Report). ANH. pp. 1–92.
• Cooper, M.A.; Addison, F.T.; Álvarez, R.; Coral, M.; Graham, R.H.; Hayward, A.B.; Howe, S.; Martínez, J.; Naar, J.; Penas, R; Pulham, A.J.; Taborda, A. (1995). "Basin development and tectonic history of the Llanos Basin, Eastern Cordillera and Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia". AAPG Bulletin. 79: 1421–1443.

• Duarte, Edward; Bayona, German; Jaramillo, Carlos; Parra, Mauricio; Romero, Ingrid; Mora, Josué Alejandro (2017). "Identificación de los máximos eventos de inundación marina Miocenos y su uso en la correlación y análisis de la cuenca de antepaís de los Llanos Orientales, Colombia". Boletín de Geología. 39: 19–40. doi:10.18273/revbol.v39n1-2017001. Retrieved 2019-10-26.
• Villamizar, Fanny Johanna; Castillo, Luis Antonio (2016). "Análisis sismoestratigráfico y secuencial del sector suroeste de la cuenca de los Llanos Orientales (Colombia)". Boletín de Geología. 38 (2): 55–69. doi:10.18273/revbol.v38n3-2016004. Retrieved 2019-10-26.
• Bayona, G.; Cortés, M.; Jaramillo, C.; Ojeda, G.; Aristizabal, J.; Reyes, A. (2007). "La deformación pre-Neogéna de la Cordillera Oriental definida por depósitos de antepaís". Boletín de Geología. 29: 51–59. Retrieved 2019-10-26.
• González Uribe, G.; García Bautista, D.; Mantilla Figueroa, L.; Rodríguez Rincón, J. (2007). "Hidrodinámica e hidrogeoquímica del Piedemonte Llanero Colombiano: Hipótesis de rutas de migración a partir de técnicas hidrogeológicas". Boletín de Geología. 29: 75–84. Retrieved 2019-10-26.

• González Iregui, Humberto; Duque Pineda, Jorge; Rincón, Juan Pablo; Castro Rodríguez, Wilmar; Suárez Gómez, Alejandro; Peláez Mejía, Carolina; Vélez Giraldo, Wilson; Dávila Bolívar, Cristina (2015). Geología de la Plancha 173 - Támara - 1:100,000 (PDF) (Report). Servicio Geológico Colombiano. pp. 1–139. Retrieved 2018-06-01.
• Unión Temporal, G&H (2015). Geología de la Plancha 177 - Río Agua Clara - 1:100,000 (Report). Servicio Geológico Colombiano. pp. 1–108.
• Pulido, Orlando; Gómez, Luz Stella (2001). Geología de la Plancha 266 - Villavicencio - 1:100,000 (Report). INGEOMINAS. pp. 1–52.
• Unión Temporal, G&H (2015). Geología de la Plancha 304 - La Uribe - 1:100,000 (Report). Servicio Geológico Colombiano. pp. 1–102.
• Unión Temporal, G&H (2015). Geología de la Plancha 348 - Serranía de la Macarena - 1:100,000 (Report). Servicio Geológico Colombiano. pp. 1–101.
• Unión Temporal, G&H (2011). Geología de la Plancha 350 - San José del Guaviare - 1:100,000 (Report). Servicio Geológico Colombiano. pp. 1–165.

• Manosalva Sánchez, Sandra Rocío; Naranjo Merchán, Wilson Enario; Ríos Reyes, Carlos Alberto; Amorocho Parra, Ricardo; Castellanos Alarcón, Oscar Mauricio (2017). "Estudio petrogenetico de las rocas metamorficas del Macizo de Floresta, Cordillera Oriental, Andes Colombianos". Boletín de Geología. 39: 83–103. doi:10.18273/revbol.v39n1-2017004. Retrieved 2019-10-26.
• Bonilla, Amed; Frantz, José Carlos; Charão Marques, Juliana; Cramer, Thomas; Franco, José Alejandro; Amaya, Zeze (2016). "Magmatismo rapakivi en la cuenca media del río Inírida, departamento de Guainía, Colombia". Boletín de Geología. 38: 17–32. doi:10.18273/revbol.v38n1-2016001. Retrieved 2019-10-26.
• Toro Toro, Luz Mary; Moreno Sánchez, Mario; Gómez Cruz, Arley (2014). "Metagabro del Ariari, Plutonismo MORB, Cordillera Oriental de Colombia". Boletín de Geología. 36: 15–24. Retrieved 2019-10-26.
• Arango Mejía, María Isabel; Zapata García, Gilberto; Martens, Uwe (2012). "Caracterización petrográfica, geoquímica y edad de la Sienita Nefelínica de San José del Guaviare". Boletín de Geología. 34: 15–26. Retrieved 2019-10-26.

• Mantilla Figueroa, Luis C.; García Ramírez, Carlos A.; Valencia, Víctor A. (2016). "Propuesta de escisión de la denominada 'Formación Silgará' (Macizo de Santander, Colombia), a partir de edades U-Pb en circones detríticos". Boletín de Geología. 38: 33–50. doi:10.18273/revbol.v38n1-2016002. Retrieved 2019-10-26.
• Moreno Sánchez, Mario; Jesus Gómez Cruz, Arley de; Castillo González, Hardany (2008). "Graptolitos del Ordovícico y geología de los afloramientos del Río Venado (norte del Departamento del Huila)" (PDF). Boletín de Geología. 30: 9–19. Retrieved 2019-03-07.
• Borrero, C.; Sarmiento, G.N.; Gómez González, C.; Gutiérrez Marco, J.C. (2007). "Los Conodontos de la Formación El Hígado y su contribución al conocimiento del metamorfismo y la paleogeografía del Ordovícico en la Cordillera Central Colombiana". Boletín de Geología. 29: 39–46. Retrieved 2019-03-07.
• Villarroel A., C.; Macia S., C.; Brieva B, J. (1997). "Formación Venado, nueva unidad litoestratigráfica del Ordovícico colombiano". Geología Colombiana. 22: 41–49. Retrieved 2019-03-07.

• Correa Martínez, Ana María; Rodríguez, Gabriel; Arango, María Isabel; Zapata García, Gilberto (2019). "Petrografía, geoquímica y geocronología U-Pb de las rocas volcánicas y piroclásticas de la Formación Noreán al NW del Macizo de Santander, Colombia". Boletín de Geología. 41: 29–54. Retrieved 2019-10-31.

National

• Mapa de Tierras (PDF) (Report). ANH. 2017. p. 1. Retrieved 2018-06-02.
• Gómez Tapias, Jorge; Montes Ramírez, Nohora E.; Almanza Meléndez, María F.; Alcárcel Gutiérrez, Fernando A.; Madrid Montoya, César A.; Diederix, Hans (2015). Geological Map of Colombia (Report). Servicio Geológico Colombiano. pp. 1–212. Retrieved 2019-10-29.

Regional

• Reyes, Germán; Cardozo, Ana Milena (1999). Mapa Geológico de Arauca 1:250,000 (Map). INGEOMINAS. p. 1. Retrieved 2017-09-21.
• Acosta, Jorge; Ulloa, Carlos; García, Pilar; Solano, Orlando (1999). Mapa Geológico de Cundinamarca (Map). INGEOMINAS. p. 1. Retrieved 2017-09-21.
• Rodríguez, Antonio José (2002). Mapa Geológico del Meta 1:500,000 (Map). INGEOMINAS. p. 1. Retrieved 2017-09-21.

• Fúquen, Jaime; Ceballos, Leonardo; Pedraza, Andrea; Marín, Edwin (2010). Plancha 99 - Villa del Rosario - 1:100,000 (PDF) (Map). INGEOMINAS. p. 1. Retrieved 2018-06-01.
• Royero, José María; Zambrano, J.; Daconte, Rommel; Mendoza, H.; Vargas, Rodrigo (1999). Plancha 111 - Toledo - 1:100,000 (Map). INGEOMINAS. p. 1. Retrieved 2017-06-06.
• López, Carolina; Dávila, Camilo; González, Francisco; Parra, Eduardo; Chaquea, Claudia; Ojeda, Carolina; Q., Carlos; Espinel, Valentina; Lancheros, José A. (2011). Plancha 139 - Betoyes - 1:100,000 (Map). INGEOMINAS. p. 1. Retrieved 2017-06-06.
• López, Carolina; Dávila, Camilo; González, Francisco; Parra, Eduardo; Chaquea, Claudia; Ojeda, Carolina; Q., Carlos; Espinel, Valentina; Lancheros, José A. (2011). Plancha 155 - Puerto Rondón - 1:100,000 (Map). INGEOMINAS. p. 1. Retrieved 2017-06-06.
• Unión Temporal, G&H (2015). Plancha 177 - Río Agua Clara - 1:100,000 (Map). Servicio Geológico Colombiano. p. 1.
• Ulloa, Carlos E; Escovar, Ricardo; Pacheco, Adolfo H. (2009). Plancha 230 - Monterrey - 1:100,000 (Map). INGEOMINAS. p. 1. Retrieved 2017-06-06.
• Pulido, Orlando; Gómez, Luz Stella; Marín, Pedro (1998). Plancha 266 - Villavicencio - 1:100,000 (Map). INGEOMINAS. p. 1. Retrieved 2017-06-06.
• Duarte, Rafael; Moreno, Mauricio; Morales, Carlos Julio; Villegas, Henry; Alvarado, Sonia; Téllez, Milena; Pacheco, Sonia; Rojas, Nadia (2010). Plancha 267 - Pachaquiaro - 1:100,000 (Map). INGEOMINAS. p. 1. Retrieved 2017-06-06.
• Unión Temporal, G&H (2015). Plancha 284 - Santana - 1:100,000 (PDF) (Map). Servicio Geológico Colombiano. p. 1. Retrieved 2018-06-01.
• Unión Temporal, G&H (2015). Plancha 348 - Serranía de la Macarena - 1:100,000 (PDF) (Map). Servicio Geológico Colombiano. p. 1. Retrieved 2018-06-01.
• Unión Temporal, G&H (2015). Plancha 350 - San José del Guaviare - 1:100,000 (Map). Servicio Geológico Colombiano. p. 1.

• Daconte, Rommel; Salinas, Rosalba; Royero, José María; Clavijo, Jairo; Arias, Alfonso; Carvajal, Luz S.; López, Martín E.; Angarita, Leonidas; Mendoza, Hernando (2009). Plancha 66 - Miraflores - 1:100,000 (Map). INGEOMINAS. p. 1. Retrieved 2017-06-06.
• Daconte, Rommel; Salinas, Rosalba (1980). Plancha 76 - Ocaña - 1:100,000 (Map). INGEOMINAS. p. 1. Retrieved 2017-06-06.
• Vargas, Rodrigo; Arias, Alfonso (1981). Plancha 86 - Ábrego - 1:100,000 (Map). INGEOMINAS. p. 1. Retrieved 2017-06-06.

• García, Helbert; Jiménez, Giovanny (2016). "Structural analysis of the Zipaquirá Anticline (Eastern Cordillera, Colombia)". Boletín de Ciencias de la Tierra, Universidad Nacional de Colombia. 39 (39): 21–32. doi:10.15446/rbct.n39.50333.
• Montaña Cárdenas, Jorge Hernando (2015). Análisis de deformaciones y modelo estructural del frente de deformación del Piedemonte Llanero de la Cordillera Oriental de Colombia (PDF) (MSc thesis). Universidad Nacional de Colombia. pp. 1–57. Retrieved 2017-08-04.
• Caballero, Victor M.; Reyes Harker, Andrés; Mora, Andrés; Ruiz, Carlos F.; Parra, Felipe de la (2013). Cenozoic Paleogeographic Reconstruction of the Foreland System in Colombia and Implications on the Petroleum Systems of the Llanos Basin (Report). AAPG International Conference, Cartagena, Colombia. pp. 1–24.
• Schütz, Christian (2012). Combined structural and Petroleum Systems Modeling in the Eastern Cordillera Basin, Colombia (MSc thesis). Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen & Instituto Colombiano del Petróleo. pp. 1–161.
• Pinto Valderrama, Jorge Eduardo; Mora Ortiz, José Pedro; Reátiga Tarazona, Gloria; Rey Pilonieta, Jorge Alberto; Toloza Hormiga, Silvia Johana; Torres Coronado, Diego Andrés; Vargas Mojica, David Ricardo; Zafra Manrique, Cristian Julián (2010). Geología del Piedemonte Llanero en la Cordillera Oriental, departamentos de Arauca y Casanare (PDF) (Report). INGEOMINAS & Universidad Industrial de Santander. pp. 1–64. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-08-15. Retrieved 2017-08-04.
• Cortés, Martín; García, Diego; Bayona, Germán; Blanco, Yolima (2009). Timing of oil generation in the Eastern flank of the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia based on kinematic models; implications in the Llanos Foothills and Foreland charge (Report). Asociación Colombiana de Geólogos y Geofisicos del Petróleo (ACGGP). pp. 1–8.
• Parra, Mauricio; Mora, Andrés; Sobel, Edward R.; Strecker, Manfred R.; Jaramillo, Carlos; O'Sullivan, Paul B.; González, Román (2008). Cenozoic Orogenic Growth of the North Andes: Shortening and Exhumation Histories of the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia (Report). AAPG Annual Convention, San Antonio, Texas. pp. 1–27.
• Sarmiento Rojas, L.F.; Van Wees, J.D.; Cloetingh, S. (2006). "Mesozoic transtensional basin history of the Eastern Cordillera, Colombian Andes: Inferences from tectonic models". Journal of South American Earth Sciences. 21 (4). Elsevier: 383–411. Bibcode:2006JSAES..21..383S. doi:10.1016/j.jsames.2006.07.003.
• Cartografía geológica cuenca Cordillera Oriental - Sector Soapaga (PDF) (Report). ANH. 2006. pp. 1–239. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-08-16. Retrieved 2017-05-05.
• Rodríguez Parra, Antonio José; Solano Silva, Orlando (2000). Mapa Geológico del Departamento de Boyacá - 1:250,000 - Memoria explicativa (PDF) (Report). INGEOMINAS. pp. 1–120. Retrieved 2019-03-10.

• Acosta Garay, Jorge; Ulloa Melo, Carlos E. (2001). Geología de la Plancha 208 Villeta - 1:100,000 (PDF) (Report). INGEOMINAS. pp. 1–84. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-03-24. Retrieved 2017-04-04.
• Reyes, Germán; Montoya, Diana; Terraza, Roberto; Fuquen, Jaime; Mayorga, Marcela; Gaona, Tatiana; Etayo, Fernando (2008). Geología del cinturón esmeraldífero oriental Planchas 210, 228, 229 (Report). INGEOMINAS. pp. 1−126.
• Acosta Garay, Jorge; Ulloa Melo, Carlos E. (2001). Geología de la Plancha 227 - La Mesa - 1:100,000 (Report). INGEOMINAS. pp. 1–80.
• Terraza, Roberto; Montoya, Diana; Reyes, Germán; Moreno, Giovanni; Fúquen, Jaime; Torres Jaimes, Eliana; López Cardona, Myriam; Nivia Guevara, Álvaro; Etayo Serna, Fernando (2013). Geología de la Plancha 229 - Gachalá - 1:100,000 (PDF) (Report). Servicio Geológico Colombiano. pp. 1–296. Retrieved 2018-06-01.
• Patiño, Alejandro; Fuquen, Jaime; Ramos, Julián; Pedraza, Andrea; Ceballos, Leonardo; Pinzón, Lyda; Jerónimo, Yadira; Álvarez, Leidy; Torres, Andrea (2011). Cartografía geológica de la Plancha 247 - Cáqueza - 1:100,000 (PDF) (Report). INGEOMINAS. pp. 1–100. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-08-15. Retrieved 2017-08-04.

• Daconte B., Rommel; Salinas E, Rosalba (1982). Plancha 122 - Río Cobugón - 1:100,000 (PDF) (Map). INGEOMINAS. p. 1. Retrieved 2018-06-01.
• Vargas, Rodrigo; Arias, Alfonso; Jaramillo, Luis; Tellez, Noel (1984). Plancha 136 - Málaga - 1:100,000 (Map). INGEOMINAS. p. 1. Retrieved 2017-06-06.
• Ulloa, Carlos E.; Rodríguez, Erasmo; Escovar, Ricardo (1998). Plancha 192 - Laguna de Tota - 1:100,000 (Map). INGEOMINAS. p. 1. Retrieved 2017-06-06.
• Terraza, Roberto; Moreno, Giovanni; Buitrago, José A.; Pérez, Adrián; Montoya, Diana María (2010). Plancha 210 - Guateque - 1:100,000 (Map). INGEOMINAS. p. 1. Retrieved 2017-06-06.
• Buitrago, José Alberto; Terraza M., Roberto; Etayo, Fernando (1998). Plancha 228 - Santafé de Bogotá Noreste - 1:100,000 (Map). INGEOMINAS. p. 1. Retrieved 2017-06-06.
• Unión Temporal, G&H (2015). Plancha 284 - Santana - 1:100,000 (PDF) (Map). Servicio Geológico Colombiano. p. 1. Retrieved 2018-06-01.

• Fuquen M., Jaime Alberto; Osorno M, José Fernando (2002). Geología de la Plancha 303 - Colombia - 1:100,000 (Report). INGEOMINAS. pp. 1–88.
• Rodríguez, Gabriel; et al. (2002). Geología de las Planchas 367 Gigante, 368 San Vicente del Caguán, 389 Timaná, 390 Puerto Rico, 391 Lusitania (parte noroccidental) y 414 El Doncello (Report). INGEOMINAS. pp. 1–164.

• Acosta, Jorge; Calcedo, Juan Carlos; Ulloa, Carlos (1999). Plancha 265 - Icononzo - 1:100,000 (Map). INGEOMINAS. p. 1. Retrieved 2017-06-06.
• Carvajal, Cesar; Fuquen, Jaime; Gómez, Luis (1993). Plancha 282 - Chaparral - 1:100,000 (Map). INGEOMINAS. p. 1. Retrieved 2017-06-06.
• Cossio, Ubaldo; Rodríguez, Gabriel; Rodríguez, Miguel (1995). Plancha 283 - Purificación - 1:100,000 (Map). INGEOMINAS. p. 1. Retrieved 2017-06-06.
• Fuquen, Jaime; Rodríguez, Gabriel; Cossio, Ubaldo; Núñez, Alberto (1993). Plancha 302 - Aipe - 1:100,000 (Map). INGEOMINAS. p. 1. Retrieved 2017-06-06.
• Acosta, Jorge; Caro, Pablo; Fuquen, Jaime; Osorno, José (2002). Plancha 303 - Colombia - 1:100,000 (Map). INGEOMINAS. p. 1.
• Ferreira, Paulina; Núñez, Alberto; Rodríguez, Miguel (1998). Plancha 323 - Neiva - 1:100,000 (Map). INGEOMINAS. p. 1. Retrieved 2017-06-06.
• Marquínez, Germán; Morales, C.; Núñez, Alberto (1999). Plancha 344 - Tesalia - 1:100,000 (Map). INGEOMINAS. p. 1. Retrieved 2017-06-06.
• Velandia, F.; Morales, C.J.; Caicedo, J.C.; Núñez, Alberto (1999). Plancha 345 - Campoalegre - 1:100,000 (Map). INGEOMINAS. p. 1. Retrieved 2017-06-06.
• Unión Temporal, G&H (2015). Plancha 347 - Espelda Nuevo - 1:100,000 (PDF) (Map). Servicio Geológico Colombiano. p. 1. Retrieved 2018-06-01.
• Rodríguez, Gabriel; Ferreira, Paulina; Velandia, Francisco; Núñez, Alberto (1998). Plancha 366 - Garzón - 1:100,000 (Map). INGEOMINAS. p. 1. Retrieved 2017-06-06.
• Rodríguez, Gabriel; Zapata, Gilberto; Velázquez, M. (2003). Plancha 367 - Gigante - 1:100,000 (Map). INGEOMINAS. p. 1. Retrieved 2017-06-06.

• Núñez Tello, Alberto (2003). Cartografía geológica de las zonas Andina Sur y Garzón-Quetame (Colombia) - Memoria explicativa de las planchas 411 La Cruz, 412 San Juan de Villalobos, 430 Mocoa, 431 Piamonte, 448 Monopamba, 449 Orito y 465 Churuyaco (Report). INGEOMINAS. pp. 1–298.

• Rodríguez, Gabriel; Zapata, Gilberto; Velázquez, M. (2003). Plancha 368 - San Vicente del Caguán - 1:100,000 (Map). INGEOMINAS. p. 1. Retrieved 2017-06-06.
• Unión Temporal, G&H (2015). Plancha 369 - Los Pozos - 1:100,000 (PDF) (Map). Servicio Geológico Colombiano. p. 1. Retrieved 2018-06-01.
• Cárdenas, Jorge; Fuquen, Jaime; Núñez, Alberto (2002). Plancha 388 - Pitalito - 1:100,000 (Map). INGEOMINAS. p. 1. Retrieved 2017-06-06.
• Rodríguez, Gabriel; Zapata, Gilberto; Velázquez, M. (2003). Plancha 389 - Timaná - 1:100,000 (Map). INGEOMINAS. p. 1. Retrieved 2017-06-06.
• Rodríguez, Gabriel; Zapata, Gilberto; Velázquez, M. (2003). Plancha 391 - Lusitania - 1:100,000 (Map). INGEOMINAS. p. 1. Retrieved 2017-06-06.
• Núñez, Alberto; Gómez, Jorge (2002). Plancha 412 - San Juan de Villalobos - 1:100,000 (Map). INGEOMINAS. p. 1. Retrieved 2017-06-06.
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• (in Spanish) Faunas del Cenozoico de Colombia
• (in Spanish) Fauna de La Venta - aspectos geológicos