Liberalism in China

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Liberalism (simplified Chinese: 自由主义; traditional Chinese: 自由主義; pinyin: zìyóu zhǔyì) in Greater China is a development from classical liberalism as it was introduced into China during the later years of the Qing dynasty and the Republican period. Prominent liberals were attacked in the early years of the People's Republic of China but liberal ideas became influential after the end of the Cultural Revolution.

In the People's Republic of China, liberal thought covers a significant range of intellectual currents. Among others, varieties of liberal thought in the PRC include the liberal Marxists of the 1980s and the neoliberals of the 1990s.

Some scholars see a liberal tradition in Confucian thought.^[1]

In the People's Republic of China, liberal thought covers a significant range of intellectual currents.^[2]: 9 Among others, varieties of liberal thought in the PRC include the liberal Marxists of the 1980s (who opposed ultra-leftism and supported a reformist socialism) and the neoliberals of the 1990s (who sought market reform and contended that this would necessarily increase political rights).^[2]: 9 Academic Hang Tu summarizes, "[A] common thread that runs through these heterogenous intellectual dynamics is the call for the condemnation of Mao's revolutionary legacy in particular and the abandonment of radical approaches to Chinese history and politics in general."^[2]: 9

Classical liberalism was introduced into China during the later years of the Qing dynasty and the Republican period.^[3]

In the years leading up to the Republic of China in 1912, thinkers such as Yan Fu and Liang Qichao translated works of John Stuart Mill, Herbert Spencer, Immanuel Kant, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and many others. These writers had a cumulative effect, as did the ascendancy of liberalism in world powers like Britain, France and the United States. The establishment a republic signaled the acceptance (at least in principle) of these models and the liberal values with which they identified, such as constitutionalism and the separation of powers.

The writings of Liang Qichao (1873–1929) played a major role, despite his leanings to a conservative outlook in latter years. The New Culture Movement (1915) and its immediate successor the May Fourth Movement (1919) initially were strongly liberal in character, with key figures like Hu Shih (1891–1962) as the preeminent exponent of liberal values.^[4] Other important liberals were Zhang Dongsun (1886–1973) and Zhang Junmai (1887–1969).

Liberalism declined after the growth of the Chinese Communist Revolution and the impacts on the China from Japanese militarism. By the 1930s, liberalism was increasingly to admonishing the Left (Maoism) and Right (Chiangism).

Writers such as Chu Anping, however, made a strong case against the Kuomintang; educators and scholars such as Fei Xiaotong and Tao Xingzhi made a case for revolution as a cause worthy of liberal support; while many more liberals left China, including the rural reformer James Yen, the university president Chiang Monlin, and many less well known figures.

Later under its newly adopted 1947 Constitution of the Republic of China, the 1947 National Assembly election, 1948 Legislative Yuan election, and 1948 presidential election took place in China.

Movements in contemporary
Chinese political thought
Neoauthoritarianism Chen Yuan Wang Huning Zhang Weiwei Jin Canrong Eric X. Li Gan Yang Jiang Shigong Wu Jiaxiang Xiao Gongqin Zheng Yongnian Hu Xijin Chen Ming Jiang Qing Kang Xiaoguang Yan Xuetong Daniel A. Bell Chen Kuiyuan Zhao Ziyang Bao Tong Li Zehou Liu Zaifu Wang Hui Wang Shaoguang Cui Zhiyuan Hu Angang Debateable: Wen Jiabao, Hu Yaobang, Hu Qili, Rong Yiren, Wang Zhengwei, Zhu Rongji and Zhou Xiaochuan
Liberalism Ai Weiwei Bao Zunxin Bo Yang Chen Yizi Du Daozheng Fang Fang Fang Lizhi Gao Shangquan Gu Su He Weifang Hu Jiwei Hu Shuli Jin Guantao Kong Qingdong Larry Hsien Ping Lang Li Honglin Li Rui Li Shenzhi Li Yinhe Liu Binyan Liu Xiaobo Mao Yushi Qin Benli Qin Hui Wang Ruoshui Wang Ruowang Wang Yuanhua Wu Jinglian Xu Jilin Xu Youyu Yan Jiaqi Zhang Qianfan Zhang Weiying Zhu Houze Zhu Xueqin
New Left Bo Xilai Dai Jinhua Deng Liqun Gao Mobo Li Minqi Sima Nan Sun Zhengcai Wang Lijun Wang Weizhong Qiu Zhanxuan Yue Xin Zhou Yongkang
Socialism with Chinese characteristics Bagatur Bayanqolu Buhe Cai Qi Chen Derong Chen Huanyou Chen Jinhua Chen Liangyu Chen Min'er Chen Xi Chen Xitong Chen Yun Chen Zhili Deng Liqun Deng Xiaoping Deng Yingchao Gao Di Geng Biao Gu Hailiang He Lifeng He Yiting Hu Jintao Hu Chunhua Hu Qiaomu Huang Ju Huang Kunming Huang Xingguo Huo Shilian Ji Lin Jia Qinglin Jia Ting'an Jiang Zemin Leng Rong Li Keqiang Li Peng Li Qiang Li Shulei Li Xi Li Xiannian Li Xuai Li Yuanchao Li Zhanshu Liang Lingguang Lin Huiyong Liu He Liu Jinguo Liu Shuiyuan Liu Tianfu Liu Yandong Liu Yazhou Liu Yunshan Luo Wen Lou Yangsheng Ma Xingrui Pan Yue Peng Zhen Qiao Shi Song Ping Shu Guozeng Sun Chunlan Sun Liancheng Wan Li[5][6][7][8][9] Wang Qishan Wang Weiguang Wang Xiaohong Wang Xuezhen Wang Yang (politician) Wang Yang (Liaoning politician) Wang Zuo'an Wu Bangguo Wu Shuqing Xi Jinping Xi Yuanping Xi Zhongxun Xia Baolong Xie Fei Xie Fuzhan Xu Kuangdi Ye Xiaowen Ye Xuanping Yi Gang Ying Yong Yu Guangyuan Yu Qiuli Yu Weiguo Yu Yunyao Zhao Leji Zeng Qinghong Zheng Bijian Zhou Qiang Zhong Shaojun Zhu Mingguo
Politics of China
v t e

The ascendancy of Mao Zedong and the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949 brought the liberal impulse to its lowest level. Ideological attacks were organized against the followers of Hu Shih,^[10] and their values were ceaselessly derided as bourgeois delusions which could only weaken the nation.

Liberal ideas increased their influence in China after the end of the Cultural Revolution.^[11] In the late 1970s, liberalism developed as a loose intellectual faction including proponents of humanist Marxism, critics of the government, and humanist writers.^[2]: 85 These intellectuals generally sought to emphasize the cosmopolitan aspects of the May Fourth legacy in support of Deng Xiaoping's reforms.^{[2]: 85–86}

After the end of the Mao-era, ideals like intellectual freedom, the separation of powers, civil society and the rule of law were reexamined in the light of the destruction wrought by the Chinese Communist Party which had been so vociferous in denigrating them. Starting in the Cultural Revolution, many younger people experienced virtual conversions to liberalism. This process was given further impetus by the Tiananmen Square protests leading up to the massacre of June 4, 1989. The democracy movement espoused (however imperfectly) many liberal doctrines. Among the key figures were Wang Ruoshui (1926–2002), who while remaining a Marxist humanist reconfigured this doctrine along liberal lines,^[12] and Liu Xiaobo (1955–2017), initially a literary critic, who broke with Marxism to combine existentialist themes with liberalism.^[13][14]

In the 1990s the liberal wing of the remnant of the pro-democracy movement re-emerged following the Tiananmen crackdown, including figures like Qin Hui,^[15] Li Shenzhi,^[16] Wang Yuanhua,^[17] Zhu Xueqin, Xu Youyu, Liu Junning and many others. The writings of Gu Zhun (1915–1974) were rediscovered, providing evidence of a stubborn core of liberal values that the communist movement had failed to extinguish. Ranged against the liberals are the Chinese New Left and populist nationalism.^[18]

After the Tiananmen Square crackdown, support among intellectuals for liberal reform and liberal democracy decreased, while support for cultural conservatism increased.^{[2]: 106–107} Post-crackdown, some liberals increasingly emphasized neoliberalism and the belief that the market was the most effective guarantor of political liberty.^[2]: 86 Chinese liberalism itself tends to divide into market liberalism, impressed by the US as a political model and adhering to the doctrines of Hayek and other neoliberals, and left-liberalism, more aligned with European social democracy and the welfare state. These tendencies continue to develop in a state of tension.

Li Keqiang is viewed as a liberal in China's ruling elite, advocating for economic liberty.^[19] Wang Yang is viewed as a liberal in China's ruling elite, representing a school of thought that advocates for gradual political liberalization.^[20]

A 2010s study shows the Chinese people with higher level of education tend to favor liberalism. Chinese citizens have a range of opinions about individual rights and political freedoms that do not always match existing policies or state propaganda. There are plenty of nationalists, but there is also a silent majority in favor of economic reform and political liberalism.^{[21][need quotation to verify]}

From the Chinese leftist perspective, Chinese liberalism places too great of an emphasis on elite experiences and memory and minimizes the experience of the underprivileged, for whom the socialist state brought improvements in standard of living and cultural dignity.^{[2]: 119-120}

Liberalism in Hong Kong has become the driving force of the democratic movement since the 1980s which is mainly represented by the pro-democracy camp which strives for the universal suffrage, human rights and rule of law in Hong Kong. It is one of two major political ideologies of the Hong Kong, with the other being conservatism.

• Chang, C. (1952). The Third Force in China. New York: Bookman Associates.
• deBary, Wm. T. (1983), The Liberal Tradition in China, New York: Columbia University Press
• Fung, Edmund S. K. (2008). "Were Chinese Liberals Liberal? Reflections on the Understanding of Liberalism in Modern China". Pacific Affairs. 81 (4): 557–576. doi:10.5509/2008814557. JSTOR 40377628.
• Grieder, Jerome B. (1970). Hu Shih and the Chinese Renaissance: Liberalism in the Chinese Revolution, 1917-1937. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674412508.
• Jenco, Leigh K. (2010), "Chinese liberalism", in Bevir, Mark (ed.), Encyclopedia of Political Theory, London: Sage, pp. 164–166, ISBN 9781412958653. Submitted version at LSE Research Online: http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/45300/
• Metzger, T. (2005). A Cloud Across the Pacific: Essays on the Clash between Chinese and Western Political Theories Today. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press.