Ecocide

Part of a series on
Environmental law
Pollution control law
Natural resources law
Reference materials
Related topics

Ecocide (from Greek oikos "home" and Latin cadere "to kill") is the destruction of the environment by humans.[1] Ecocide threatens all human populations who are dependent on natural resources for maintaining ecosystems and ensuring their ability to support future generations.[2][3][4][5] The Independent Expert Panel for the Legal Definition of Ecocide describes it as "unlawful or wanton acts committed with knowledge that there is a substantial likelihood of severe and either widespread or long-term damage to the environment being caused by those acts".[6][7]

Common causes of ecocide include war, pollution, over-exploitation of natural resources such as the Amazon rainforest, and industrial disasters. The term was popularised by Olof Palme when he accused the United States of ecocide at the 1972 UN Conference on the Human Environment.[8][9]

There is currently no international crime of ecocide that applies in peacetime, only in wartime, covered by the Rome Statute.[3][10] It was originally planned to be included in the Rome Statute and supported by many states, but was removed due to objections by the United Kingdom, France and the United States of America. Ecocide has been made a national law in several countries with many more discussing implementing a law, including the European Union.[11] Stop Ecocide International and others are working to enshrine ecocide into the Rome Statute, making it both international law and national law in member states' national law.[10][3] Several countries have supported criminalising ecocide in international law, including Fiji, Niue, the Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, Tonga and Vanuatu.[12]

Ecocide is a common theme in fiction with many films and books set in a post-ecocide world, including the James Cameron's Avatar films, Blade Runner, Mad Max, WALL-E, Interstellar, Threads and Soylent Green.

Definition

[edit]

The Independent Expert Panel for the Legal Definition of Ecocide, convened by Stop Ecocide Foundation describes ecocide as "unlawful or wanton acts committed with knowledge that there is a substantial likelihood of severe and either widespread or long-term damage to the environment being caused by those acts".[6][7]

Ecocide may occur with or without intent. Environmental lawyer Polly Higgins distinguishes between ascertainable and non-ascertainable ecocide, with the former having a clear human cause while the latter does not. An example of non-ascertainable ecocide is destruction due to extreme weather events related to climate change.[3]

Arthur H. Westing discussed the element of intent in relation to ecocide, stating that "Intent may not only be impossible to establish without admission but, I believe, it is essentially irrelevant."[13][2]

Causes

[edit]

Genocide

[edit]

Ecocide can threaten a people's cultural and physical existence, and several studies have shown that ecocide has genocidal dimensions.[2] Destruction of the natural environment can result in cultural genocide by preventing people from following their traditional way of life.[2] This is especially true for Indigenous people.[4] Ecocide resulting from climate change and resource extraction may become a primary driver of genocide worldwide.[2] Some Indigenous scholars have argued that ecocide and genocide are inextricable.[3]

Mainstream understanding of genocide (as defined by the United Nations) restricts genocide to acts committed against the bodies of individual people. Some genocide researchers argue that this human rights framework does a disservice to colonised Indigenous people who experienced social death with the loss of relationship to their land but who were not always killed in the process of colonisation.[3]

Climate change and mass extinction

[edit]

The ongoing mass extinction of species has been called ecocide.[14] US environmental theorist Patrick Hossay argues that modern industrial civilization is ecocidal.[15]

Climate change may result in ecocide. For example, ocean acidification and warming causes damage to coral reefs,[16][17] although ecocide of coral reefs has also been attributed to causes not related to climate change.[18] Criminalization of ecocide under the Rome Statute has been proposed as a deterrent to corporations responsible for climate change,[17] although others argue that criminalizing ecocide will not address the root causes of the climate crisis.[19]

Examples

[edit]
Deforestation in Europe.

While ecocide is recognised as a crime in a small number of countries, many examples of environmental destruction have been described as ecocides by academics, journalists, politicians and others.

Vietnam War

[edit]
Main article: Vietnam War
U.S. helicopter spraying chemical defoliants in the Mekong Delta, South Vietnam, 1969

One of the most controversial aspects of the U.S. military effort in Southeast Asia was the widespread use of chemical defoliants between 1961 and 1971. 20 million gallons of toxic herbicides (like Agent Orange) were sprayed on 6 million acres of forests and crops by the U.S. Air Force.[20] They were used to defoliate large parts of the countryside to prevent the Viet Cong from being able to hide weaponry and encampments under the foliage, and to deprive them of food. Defoliation was also used to clear sensitive areas, including base perimeters and possible ambush sites along roads and canals. More than 20% of South Vietnam's forests and 3.2% of its cultivated land was sprayed at least once. 90% of herbicide use was directed at forest defoliation.: 263  The chemicals used continue to change the landscape, cause diseases and birth defects, and poison the food chain.[21][22][23] Agent Orange in combination with bombings and poaching by locals for their erroneously valued horns led to the extinction of the Vietnamese Javan rhinoceros, reducing the population to 12 or less individuals in Cát Tiên National Park where the final individual of the subspecies was killed by a poacher in 2010.[24][25] The aforementioned ecocides, bombings, and poaching and wildlife trafficking fuelled by the war from locals also furthered the declines of several other native Vietnamese species such as the Indochinese tiger, Asian elephant, Edward's pheasant, northern white-cheeked gibbon, and saola.[26] Official US military records have listed figures including the destruction of 20% of the jungles of South Vietnam and 20-36% (with other figures reporting 20-50%) of the mangrove forests.[27] The environmental destruction caused by this defoliation has been described by Swedish Prime Minister Olof Palme, lawyers, historians and other academics as an ecocide.[28][29][30][31][32][33]

Russian invasion of Ukraine

[edit]
Main article: Environmental impact of the Russian invasion of Ukraine
Before and after the Destruction of the Kakhovka Dam

Based on a preliminary assessment the Russian invasion of Ukraine has inflicted USD 51 billion in environmental damage in both territories. According to a report by the Yale School of the Environment, some 687,000 tons of petrochemicals have burned as a result of shelling, while nearly 1,600 tons of pollutants have leaked into bodies of water. Hazardous chemicals have contaminated around 70 acres of soil, and likely made agricultural activities temporarily impossible.[34] Around 30% of Ukraine's land is now littered with explosives and more than 2.4 million hectares of forest have been damaged.[35]

According to Netherlands-based peace organization PAX, Russia's "deliberate targeting of industrial and energy infrastructure" has caused "severe" pollution, and the use of explosive weapons has left "millions of tonnes" of contaminated debris in cities and towns.[36] In early June 2023, the Kakhovka Dam, under Russian occupation, was damaged, causing flooding and triggering warnings of an ″ecological disaster.″[37]

The Ukrainian government, international observers and journalists have described the damage as ecocide.[38][39][40][41] The Ukrainian government is investigating more than 200 war crimes against the environment and 15 incidents of ecocide (a crime in Ukraine).[42][43][44] Zelenskyy and Ukraine's prosecutor general Andriy Kostin have met with prominent European figures (Margot Wallstrom, Heidi Hautala, Mary Robinson and Greta Thunberg) to discuss the environmental damage and how to prosecute it.[45][46]

Deforestation in Indonesia

[edit]
Main article: Deforestation in Indonesia
Deforestation in Riau province, Sumatra, to make way for an oil palm plantation (2007)

Indonesia has one of the world's fastest deforestation rates.[47][48] In 2020, forests covered approximately 49.1% of the country's land area,[49] down from 87% in 1950.[50] Since the 1970s, log production, various plantations and agriculture have been responsible for much of the deforestation in Indonesia.[50] Most recently, it has been driven by the palm oil industry,[51] which has been criticised for its environmental impact and displacement of local communities.[48][52] The widespread deforestation (and other environmental destruction) in Indonesia is often described by academics as an ecocide.[53][54][55][56][57] The situation has made Indonesia the world's largest forest-based emitter of greenhouse gases.[58] It also threatens the survival of indigenous and endemic species. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) identified 140 species of mammals as threatened and 15 as critically endangered, including the Bali myna,[59] Sumatran orangutan[60] and Javan rhinoceros.[61]

Chernobyl disaster

[edit]
Main article: Chernobyl disaster

After the disaster, four square kilometres (1.5 sq mi) of pine forest directly downwind of the reactor turned reddish-brown and died, earning the name of the "Red Forest".[62] Some animals in the worst-hit areas also died or stopped reproducing. The disaster has been described by lawyers, academics and journalists as an example of ecocide.[63][64][65]

Niger Delta oil pollution

[edit]
Main article: Environmental issues in the Niger Delta

The effects of oil exploration in the fragile region of Niger Delta communities and environment have been vast. Local indigenous people have seen little improvement in their standard of living while suffering serious damage to their natural environment. Some of the hazardous damage of oil and gas exploration in the ecosystem are life threatening which includes Air pollution, Water pollution, Noise pollution etc. Affecting the aquatic lives, human health, also leads to deforestation. According to Nigerian federal government figures, there were more than 7,000 oil spills between 1970 and 2000.[66]

It has been estimated that a clean-up of the region, including full restoration of swamps, creeks, fishing grounds and mangroves, could take 25 years.[67] The Niger Delta is one of the most polluted regions in the world.[68][69] The heavy contamination of the air, ground and water with toxic pollutants is often used as an example of ecocide.[70][71][72][73][74]

Amazon rainforest deforestation

[edit]
Main article: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest
Deforestation in the Maranhão state, Brazil

Damage to the Amazon has widely been described by indigenous groups, human rights groups, politicians, academics and journalists as an ecocide and a genocide.[75][76][77][78] Indigenous chiefs and human rights organizations have submitted an Article 15 communication against former president of Brazil Jair Bolsonaro to the International Criminal Court for crimes against humanity and genocide for harm to Indigenous people and destruction of the Amazon.[79][80][81] Another has been submitted for ecocide by indigenous chiefs.[82]

Israel–Hamas war

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Environmental impact of the Israel–Hamas war.[edit]

There has been extensive environmental damage caused by the ongoing Israeli invasion of the Gaza Strip (itself a part of the Israel–Hamas war),[83] including the destruction of agricultural land, displacement of people, bombing of Gaza, the Israeli blockade, and famine in the Gaza Strip.[83][84][85] By March 2024, nearly half of tree cover and farmland in Gaza had been destroyed.[83][84]

Israeli bombardment and the blockade have led to a total collapse of Gaza's civil infrastructure, including sewage treatment, waste disposal, water management, and fuel supplies. Water has been polluted by 130,000 cubic metres of sewage being discharged into the sea every day due to Israel cutting off fuel supplies. Groundwater has been contaminated by toxins and munitions and air has been polluted by smoke and particulates from bombing.[83][86] Soils have been degraded by uprooting trees and contaminated by toxins, munitions, heavy bombing and demolitions. Bombing by the Israeli army has created 37 million tonnes of debris and hazardous material, much of which contains human remains and tens of thousands of bombs.[84][87] In June 2024, northern Gaza was described as a "wasteland", unable to sustain life.[88]

The size and lasting impact of the systematic and intentional destruction of agriculture in Gaza have led to calls by the research group Forensic Architecture at Goldsmiths, University of London, and the Palestinian Environmental NGOs Network for the Israeli Government to be investigated for the Rome Statute war crime of ecocide for "widespread, long-term and severe damage to the natural environment".[84]

International law

[edit]

There is no international law against ecocide that applies in peacetime, but the Rome Statute makes it a crime to

Intentionally launch an attack in the knowledge that such attack will cause incidental loss of life or injury to civilians or damage to civilian objects or widespread, long-term and severe damage to the natural environment which would be clearly excessive in relation to the concrete and direct overall military advantage anticipated.[89]

The UN's International Law Commission (ILC) considered the inclusion of the crime of ecocide to be included within the Draft Code of Crimes Against the Peace and Security of Mankind, the document which later became the Rome Statute. Article 26 (crime against the environment) was publicly supported by 19 countries in the Legal Committee but was removed due to opposition from the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and the United States of America.[90][91][92]

In 1977 the United Nations adopted the Convention on the Prohibition of Military or any other Hostile use of Environmental Modification Technique.[93] Article I of this Convention says, "Each State Party to this Convention undertakes not to engage in military or any other hostile use of environmental modification techniques having widespread, long-lasting or severe effects as the means of destruction, damage or injury to any other State Party." There is no definition of the terms 'widespread, long-lasting or severe'.

In February 2024, the European Parliament adopted a law making large-scale, intentionally caused, environmental damage “comparable to ecocide” a crime that can be punished by up to 10 years in prison. Members of the states of the European Union have two years from that date to incorproate their crime into their national laws.[94] As of early 2024, there are growing calls to recognize ecocide as an international crime.[95]

Efforts to expand international ecocide law

[edit]

Efforts to criminalise ecocide have sought to include the crime among those prosecuted by the International Criminal Court established by the Rome Statute. These crimes include genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes and the crime of aggression.[96]

In 2010, environmental lawyer Polly Higgins submitted a proposal to the United Nations International Law Commission that defined ecocide as:

The extensive damage to, destruction of or loss of ecosystems of a given territory, whether by human agency or by any other causes, to such an extent that peaceful enjoyment by the inhabitants of that territory has been severely diminished.[97][98][99][100]

This definition includes damage caused by individuals, corporations and/or the state. It also includes environmental destruction from 'other causes' (i.e. harm that is not necessarily caused by human activity). The purpose was to create a duty of care to mitigate or prevent naturally occurring disasters as well as creating criminal responsibility for human-caused ecocide.[101] The proposal has yet to be accepted by the United Nations.[97]

On 22 January 2013, a committee of eleven citizens from nine European Union countries launched the "European Citizens Initiative (ECI) to End Ecocide in Europe".[102] The initiative aimed at criminalizing ecocide and investments in activities causing ecocide, as well as denying market access to the EU for products derived from ecocidal activities. Three members of the European Parliament, Keith Taylor, Eva Joly, and Jo Leinen, publicly gave the first signatures.[103] The initiative did not collect the 1 million signatures needed, but was discussed in the European Parliament.[104]

In December 2019 at the 18th session of the Assembly of States Parties to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Vanuatu and the Maldives called for ecocide to be added to the Statute.[7][105][106]

In June 2021, an international panel of lawyers submitted a definition of ecocide and proposed a draft amendment to the Rome Statute that would include ecocide among the international crimes prosecuted under the Statute.[107][7][108][109][110] The panel included members from the UK, Senegal, the US, France, Ecuador, Bangladesh, Sierra Leone, Samoa and Norway,[111] and their proposed definition is:

For the purpose of this Statute, "ecocide" means unlawful or wanton acts committed with knowledge that there is a substantial likelihood of severe and either widespread or long-term damage to the environment being caused by those acts.[112]

Notable supporters of ecocide law

[edit]

Many notable people have publicly supported ecocide being made a crime at the International Criminal Court. Several world leaders, environmentalists and celebrities have publicly supported ecocide being made an international crime including Pope Francis, Antonio Guterres, Greta Thunberg, Fiamē Naomi Mataʻafa, Emmanuel Macron, Jane Goodall and Paul McCartney.[113][114]

At the 1972 UN Conference on the Human Environment, Swedish Prime Minister Olof Palme described the damage caused by defoliant Agent Orange in the Vietnam War as ecocide and called for it to be made an international crime.[115][116][117][118] United Nations Secretary-General Antonio Guterres said in 2017 that it is "highly desirable" to include ecocide as a crime at the International Criminal Court.[119][120][121] Pope Francis in his address to the International Association of Penal Law in 2019 stated that "By 'ecocide' we should understand the loss, damage and destruction of ecosystems of a given territory, so that its enjoyment by the inhabitants has been or may be severely affected. This is a fifth category of crimes against peace, which should be recognised as such by the international community." He also stated that "sins against ecology" should be added to Catholic teachings.[122][123][124]

Environmentalist Jane Goodall supported ecocide being made an international crime, stating: "The concept of Ecocide is long overdue. It could lead to an important change in the way people perceive – and respond to – the current environmental crisis."[125][126][127] In 2023, Greta Thunberg, Luisa Neubauer, Anuna de Wever and Adélaïde Carlier demanded, in an open letter, that all European Union leaders and heads of state must "advocate to make ecocide an international crime at the International Criminal Court."[128][129] At the 54th session of the Human Rights Council, Volker Türk, United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights supported ecocide being made a crime at national and international levels.[130]

Stop Ecocide International

[edit]

Stop Ecocide International (SEI) is an organisation which advocates amending the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court to include ecocide. It works with governments, politicians, diplomats and wider society. The organisation has branches or associate groups in almost 50 countries.[131][1] SEI's sister organisation, the Stop Ecocide Foundation convened the Independent Expert Panel for the Legal Definition of Ecocide.[132][111]

History

[edit]

1970s

[edit]

The concept of ecocide originated in the 1970s after the United States devastated the environment in Vietnam through use of Agent Orange during the Vietnam War.[8][9][133] The word was first recorded at the Conference on War and National Responsibility in Washington DC, where American plant biologist and bioethicist Arthur Galston proposed a new international agreement to ban ecocide.[134][135]

In 1972 at the United Nations Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment, Prime Minister of Sweden Olof Palme called the Vietnam War an ecocide.[136] Others, including Indira Gandhi from India and Tang Ke, the leader of the Chinese delegation, also denounced the war in human and environmental terms, calling for ecocide to be an international crime.[137][138] A Working Group on Crimes Against the Environment was formed at the conference, and a draft Ecocide Convention was submitted into the United Nations in 1973.[136] This convention called for a treaty that would define and condemn ecocide as an international war crime, recognising that "man has consciously and unconsciously inflicted irreparable damage to the environment in times of war and peace."[139]

The International Law Commission 1978 Yearbook's 'Draft articles on State Responsibility and International Crime' included: "an international crime (which) may result, inter alia, from: (d) a serious breach of an international obligation of essential importance for the safeguarding and preservation of the human environment, such as those prohibiting massive pollution of the atmosphere or of the seas."[140] Supporters who spoke out in favor of a crime of ecocide included Romania, the Holy See,[141] Austria, Poland, Rwanda, Congo and Oman.[141]

1980s

[edit]

The Whitaker Report, commissioned by the Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights on the prevention and punishment of genocide was prepared by then Special Rapporteur, Benjamin Whitaker.[142] The report contained a passage that

Some members of the Sub-Commission have, however, proposed that the definition of genocide should be broadened to include cultural genocide or "ethnocide", and also "ecocide": adverse alterations, often irreparable, to the environment – for example through nuclear explosions, chemical weapons, serious pollution and acid rain, or destruction of the rain forest – which threaten the existence of entire populations, whether deliberately or with criminal negligence.[143]

Discussion of international crimes continued in the International Law Commission in 1987, where it was proposed that "the list of international crimes include "ecocide", as a reflection of the need to safeguard and preserve the environment, as well as the first use of nuclear weapons, colonialism, apartheid, economic aggression and mercenarism".[144]

1990s

[edit]

In 1996, Canadian/Australian lawyer Mark Gray published his proposal for an international crime of ecocide, based on established international environmental and human rights law. He demonstrated that states, and arguably individuals and organizations, causing or permitting harm to the natural environment on a massive scale breach a duty of care owed to humanity in general. He proposed that such breaches, where deliberate, reckless or negligent, be identified as ecocide where they entail serious, and extensive or lasting, ecological damage; international consequences; and waste.[9]

2010s

[edit]

In 2011, the Hamilton Group drafted a mock Ecocide Act and then tested it via a mock trial in the UK Supreme Court.[145][146]

In 2012, a concept paper on the Law of Ecocide was sent out to governments.[147] In June 2012 the idea of making ecocide a crime was presented to legislators and judges from around the world at the World Congress on Justice Governance and Law for Environmental Sustainability,[148][149][150] held in Mangaratiba before the Rio +20 Earth Summit. Making ecocide an international crime was voted as one of the top twenty solutions to achieving sustainable development at the World Youth Congress in Rio de Janeiro in June 2012.[151]

In October 2012 the international conference Environmental Crime: Current and Emerging Threats[152] was held in Rome and hosted by the United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute (UNICRI) in cooperation with United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) and the Ministry of the Environment (Italy). The conference recognized that environmental crime is an important new form of transnational organized crime in need a greater response. One of the outcomes was that UNEP and UNICRI head up a study into the definition of environmental crime and give due consideration to making ecocide an international crime.[153]

In November 2019 Pope Francis, addressing the International Association of Penal Law (AIDP), called on the international community to recognize ecocide as a "fifth category of crime against peace."[154]

In July 2019, a group of 24 scientists called for ecocide committed in conflict areas be punished as a war crime.[8]

2020s

[edit]

In November 2020, a panel of international lawyers convened by Stop Ecocide International and chaired by British law professor Philippe Sands and Senegalese jurist Dior Fall Sow started drafting a proposed law criminalizing ecocide.[155][156]

In May 2021, the European parliament adopted 2 reports advancing the recognition of ecocide as a crime.[157]

In order to enforce implementation and increase citizens' trust in EU rules, and to prevent and remedy environmental damage more effectively, Parliament demands that the Environmental Liability Directive (ELD) and the Environmental Crime Directive (ECD) be improved.[158][clarification needed]

Also in May 2021 the 179 members of the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) passed an almost-unanimous resolution inviting member parliaments recognise the crime of ecocide.[159]

The governments of some of the island states at risk from climate change (Fiji, Niue, the Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, Tonga and Vanuatu) launched the "Port Vila Call for a Just Transition to a Fossil Fuel Free Pacific", calling for the phase out fossil fuels and the 'rapid and just transition' to renewable energy and strengthening environmental law including introducing the crime of ecocide.[160][161]

On 16 November 2023, European Union legislators reached an agreement on a new directive with jail sentences for the worst polluters and companies fined up to 5% of their global turnover. The agreed law has to be formally approved by Parliament in February 2024.[162]

Domestic law

[edit]

Ten countries have codified ecocide as a crime within their borders during peacetime. Those countries followed the wording of Article 26 of the International law Commission (ILC) Draft which referred to intentionally causing "widespread, long-term and severe damage to the natural environment" within the context of war – bearing in mind that Article 26 was removed from the final draft submitted to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court in 1996.[163] None of the countries established procedures to measure 'intention'.

The countries with domestic ecocide laws are France (2021), Georgia (1999), Armenia (2003), Ukraine (2001), Belarus (1999), Ecuador (2008; 2014), Kazakhstan (1997), Kyrgyzstan (1997), Moldova (2002), Russia (1996), Tajikistan (1998), Uzbekistan (1994) and Vietnam (1990).[164]

France

[edit]

In 2021, The French National Assembly approved the creation of an "ecocide" offence as part of a battery of measures aimed at protecting the environment and tackling climate change.[165][166]

[edit]

See List of nuclear holocaust fiction for fiction which depicts ecocide by nuclear holocaust.

Movies

[edit]

Many movies depict ecocide and its impacts including:[167][168]

TV series

[edit]

Documentaries

[edit]

Several documentaries explore the subject including

  • Poisoning Paradise: Ecocide New Zealand
  • Ecocide changer ou disparaître
  • Ecocide: Voices from Paradise
  • Heart of Mother Earth'[168]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Mehta, Jojo; Jackson, Julia (24 February 2021). "To stop climate disaster, make ecocide an international crime. It's the only way". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 30 June 2022.
  2. ^ a b c d e Crook, Martin; Short, Damien (3 April 2014). "Marx, Lemkin and the genocide–ecocide nexus". The International Journal of Human Rights. 18 (3): 298–319. doi:10.1080/13642987.2014.914703. ISSN 1364-2987. S2CID 145716977.
  3. ^ a b c d e f Eichler, Lauren (4 September 2020). "Ecocide Is Genocide: Decolonizing the Definition of Genocide". Genocide Studies and Prevention. 14 (2): 104–121. doi:10.5038/1911-9933.14.2.1720. ISSN 1911-0359. S2CID 225298981.
  4. ^ a b Crook, Martin; Short, Damien; South, Nigel (2018). "Ecocide, genocide, capitalism and colonialism: Consequences for indigenous peoples and glocal ecosystems environments". Theoretical Criminology. 22 (3): 298–317. doi:10.1177/1362480618787176. ISSN 1362-4806. S2CID 150239863.
  5. ^ Sarliève, Maud (2020). "Ecocide: Past, Present, and Future Challenges". Life on Land. Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals. Springer International Publishing. pp. 1–11. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-71065-5_110-1. ISBN 978-3-319-71065-5.
  6. ^ a b "Legal Definition of Ecocide". Stop Ecocide International. Retrieved 13 May 2023.
  7. ^ a b c d "Legal experts worldwide draw up 'historic' definition of ecocide". The Guardian. 22 June 2021.
  8. ^ a b c Watts, Johnathan (24 July 2019). "Make environmental damage a war crime, say scientists". The Guardian. Retrieved 25 July 2019.
  9. ^ a b c Gray, Mark Allan (1995–1996). "The International Crime of Ecocide". California Western International Law Journal. 26: 215.
  10. ^ a b White, Rob; Heckenberg, Diane (2014). Green Criminology: an Introduction to the Study of Environmental Harm. Routledge. pp. 45–59.
  11. ^ "European Parliament proposes including "ecocide" in EU law". Stop Ecocide International. 29 March 2023. Retrieved 13 May 2023.
  12. ^ "Stop Ecocide International". 6 pacific nations call for just transition to "fossil fuel free pacific" including strengthening law to prevent ecocide. 17 March 2023. Retrieved 13 May 2023.
  13. ^ Westing, Arthur H. (January 1974). "Proscription of Ecocide". Science and Public Affairs.
  14. ^ Broswimmer, Franz (2002). Ecocide: A Short History of the Mass Extinction of Species (PDF). London: Pluto Press.
  15. ^ Hossay, Patrick (2006). Unsustainable: A Primer for Global Environmental and Social Justice. United Kingdom: Zed Books. ISBN 1842776576.
  16. ^ "What is ecocide? | Kew". kew.org. Retrieved 30 June 2022.
  17. ^ a b "Ecocide: Holding Corporations and Their Officers Criminally Liable". Global Policy Journal. Retrieved 30 June 2022.
  18. ^ "Is Ecocide Inevitable in the World's Most Contested Sea?". CSIS Journalism Bootcamp. 9 June 2020. Retrieved 30 June 2022.
  19. ^ "Why criminalising ecocide won't solve the climate crisis". euronews. 13 March 2021. Retrieved 30 June 2022.
  20. ^ Westing, Arthur H. (1984). Herbicides in War: The Long-term Ecological and Human Consequences. Taylor & Francis. pp. 5ff.
  21. ^ Palmer, Michael G. (2007). "The Case of Agent Orange". Contemporary Southeast Asia. 29 (1): 172–195. doi:10.1355/cs29-1h. JSTOR 25798819.
  22. ^ Stone, Richard (2007). "Agent Orange's Bitter Harvest". Science. 315 (5809): 176–179. doi:10.1126/science.315.5809.176. JSTOR 20035179. PMID 17218503. S2CID 161597245.
  23. ^ Lynne Peeples (10 July 2013). "Veterans Sick From Agent Orange-Poisoned Planes Still Seek Justice". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 4 September 2013.
  24. ^ "Scientists Find Surviving Members of Rhino Species". web.archive.org. 27 March 2019. Retrieved 22 November 2024.
  25. ^ Gersmann, Hanna (25 October 2011). "Javan rhino driven to extinction in Vietnam, conservationists say". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 22 November 2024.
  26. ^ "Joining forces to save Vietnam's species". Vietnamazing. Retrieved 22 November 2024.
  27. ^ Fox, Diane N. (2003). "Chemical Politics and the Hazards of Modern Warfare: Agent Orange" (PDF). In Casper, Monica J. (ed.). Synthetic Planet: Chemical Politics and the Hazards of Modern Life. Routledge. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 July 2010.
  28. ^ Zierler, David (2011). The invention of ecocide: agent orange, Vietnam, and the scientists who changed the way we think about the environment. Athens, Ga.: University of Georgia Press. ISBN 978-0-8203-3827-9.
  29. ^ "How Imperative Is It To Consider Ecocide As An International Crime?". IJLLR. 18 December 2022. Retrieved 21 June 2023.
  30. ^ Falk, Richard A. (1973). "Environmental Warfare and Ecocide — Facts, Appraisal, and Proposals". Bulletin of Peace Proposals. 4 (1): 80–96. doi:10.1177/096701067300400105. ISSN 0007-5035. JSTOR 44480206. S2CID 144885326.
  31. ^ "Industrial disasters from Bhopal to present day: why the proposal to make 'ecocide' an international offence is persuasive – The Leaflet". theleaflet.in. 17 February 2022. Retrieved 21 June 2023.
  32. ^ Giovanni, Chiarini (1 April 2022). "Ecocide: From the Vietnam War to International Criminal Jurisdiction? Procedural Issues In-Between Environmental Science, Climate Change, and Law". SSRN 4072727.
  33. ^ "'Ecocide' movement pushes for a new international crime: Environmental destruction". NBC News. 7 April 2021. Retrieved 21 June 2023.
  34. ^ "One Year In, Russia's War on Ukraine Has Inflicted $51 Billion in Environmental Damage". e360.yale.edu. Yale University. 22 February 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
  35. ^ "'Environmental Destruction Is a Form of Warfare': Thunberg Joins Ecocide Investigation in Ukraine". Common Dreams. Retrieved 3 July 2023.
  36. ^ "Ten-Step plan to address environmental impact of war in Ukraine". PAX for Peace. 24 February 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
  37. ^ Talmazan, Yuliya; Arkin, Daniel; Kaufman, Sarah; Mayer, Daryna (6 June 2023). "Ukraine accuses Russia of blowing up major dam". NBC News. Retrieved 7 June 2023.
  38. ^ "The Environmental Cost of the War in Ukraine". International Relations Review. 2 June 2023. Retrieved 7 June 2023.
  39. ^ Graham-Harrison, Emma (27 August 2022). "Toxins in soil, blasted forests – Ukraine counts cost of Putin's 'ecocide'". The Observer. ISSN 0029-7712. Retrieved 7 June 2023.
  40. ^ Qazi, Shereena. "'An Ecocide': How the conflict in Ukraine is bombarding the environment". TRT World. Retrieved 19 June 2024.
  41. ^ "Ukrainians hope to rebuild greener country after Russia's war causes 'ecocide'". The Independent. 19 March 2022. Retrieved 7 June 2023.
  42. ^ "Ukraine Recap: Zelenskiy Decries 'Ecocide' Brought on by War - BNN Bloomberg". BNN. 30 June 2023. Retrieved 3 July 2023.
  43. ^ Ragozin, Leonid (16 March 2019). "Annexation of Crimea: A masterclass in political manipulation". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 7 November 2020. Retrieved 24 May 2022.
  44. ^ "Will Kakhovka Dam destruction make 'ecocide' a global crime?". openDemocracy. Retrieved 3 July 2023.
  45. ^ Gigova, Radina (2 July 2023). "Russia is accused of 'ecocide' in Ukraine. But what does that mean?". CNN. Retrieved 3 July 2023.
  46. ^ "Zelenskyy meets Greta Thunberg, Mary Robinson to address war's effect on Ukraine's ecology". TheJournal.ie. Press Association. 29 June 2023. Retrieved 3 July 2023.
  47. ^ "Selling Out West Papua | 101 East". Al Jazeera. 25 June 2020.
  48. ^ a b Limaho, Handoko; Sugiarto; Pramono, Rudy; Christiawan, Rio (14 July 2022). "The Need for Global Green Marketing for the Palm Oil Industry in Indonesia". Sustainability. 14 (14): 8621. doi:10.3390/su14148621.
  49. ^ "Forest area (% of land area) – Indoneisa". World Bank. Retrieved 14 June 2021.
  50. ^ a b Tsujino, Riyou; Yumoto, Takakazu; Kitamura, Shumpei; Djamaluddin, Ibrahim; Darnaedi, Dedy (November 2016). "History of forest loss and degradation in Indonesia". Land Use Policy. 57: 335–347. Bibcode:2016LUPol..57..335T. doi:10.1016/j.landusepol.2016.05.034.
  51. ^ Austin, Kemen G; Schwantes, Amanda; Gu, Yaofeng; Kasibhatla, Prasad D (1 February 2019). "What causes deforestation in Indonesia?". Environmental Research Letters. 14 (2): 024007. Bibcode:2019ERL....14b4007A. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/aaf6db.
  52. ^ Colchester, Marcus; Jiwan, Normal; Andiko, Martua Sirait; Firdaus, Asup Y.; Surambo, A.; Pane, Herbert (26 March 2012). "Palm Oil and Land Acquisition in Indonesia: Implications for Local Communities and Indigenous People" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 May 2012. Retrieved 31 May 2012.
  53. ^ "Ecocide in Indonesia". Forensic Architecture. Retrieved 5 July 2023.
  54. ^ "Explainer: What is ecocide?". Eco-Business. 4 August 2022. Retrieved 5 July 2023.
  55. ^ Aida, Melly; Tahar, Abdul Muthalib; Davey, Orima (2023), Perdana, Ryzal; Putrawan, Gede Eka; Saputra, Bayu; Septiawan, Trio Yuda (eds.), "Ecocide in the International Law: Integration Between Environmental Rights and International Crime and Its Implementation in Indonesia", Proceedings of the 3rd Universitas Lampung International Conference on Social Sciences (ULICoSS 2022), Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, vol. 740, Paris: Atlantis Press SARL, pp. 572–584, doi:10.2991/978-2-38476-046-6_57, ISBN 978-2-38476-045-9
  56. ^ Alberro, Heather; Daniele, Luigi (29 June 2021). "Ecocide: why establishing a new international crime would be a step towards interspecies justice". The Conversation. Retrieved 5 July 2023.
  57. ^ Setiyono, Joko; Natalis, Aga (30 December 2021). "Ecocides as a Serious Human Rights Violation: A Study on the Case of River Pollution by the Palm Oil Industry in Indonesia". International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning. 16 (8): 1465–1471. doi:10.18280/ijsdp.160807. ISSN 1743-7601. S2CID 245606762.
  58. ^ Chrysolite, Hanny; Juliane, Reidinar; Chitra, Josefhine; Ge, Mengpin (4 October 2017). "Evaluating Indonesia's Progress on its Climate Commitments". World Resources Institute. Archived from the original on 5 October 2017. Retrieved 26 August 2018.
  59. ^ BirdLife International (2016). "Leucopsar rothschildi". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T22710912A94267053. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22710912A94267053.en.
  60. ^ "Extinction crisis escalates: Red List shows apes, corals, vultures, dolphins all in danger". International Union for Conservation of Nature. 12 September 2007. Archived from the original on 16 October 2016. Retrieved 16 October 2016.
  61. ^ van Strien, N. J.; Steinmetz, R.; Manullang, B.; Sectionov, K. H.; Isnan, W.; Rookmaaker, K.; Sumardja, E.; Khan, M. K. M. & Ellis, S. (2008). "Rhinoceros sondaicus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008: e.T19495A8925965. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T19495A8925965.en.
  62. ^ Mulvey, Stephen (20 April 2006). "Wildlife defies Chernobyl radiation". BBC News. Archived from the original on 5 November 2017. Retrieved 8 November 2018.
  63. ^ Rybacki, Josef (1 February 2021). "Establishing the crime of 'ecocide'". Law Gazette. Retrieved 21 June 2023.
  64. ^ Krogh, Peter F. (1994). "Ecocide : a Soviet legacy". Great Decisions 1994. Retrieved 21 June 2023.
  65. ^ Wojsyk, Jakub (12 January 2022). "Ecocide – the genocide of the 21st century? Eastern European perspective". CIRSD. Retrieved 21 June 2023.
  66. ^ Vidal, John (30 May 2010). "Nigeria's agony dwarfs the Gulf oil spill. The US and Europe ignore it". The Observer. Archived from the original on 15 December 2016.
  67. ^ Vidal, John (1 June 2016). "Niger delta oil spill clean-up launched – but could take quarter of a century". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 15 March 2018. Retrieved 14 March 2018.
  68. ^ Donatus, Peter (15 October 2016). "Shell's Nigeria ecocide is creating a refugee crisis". greenleft.org.au. Retrieved 6 July 2023.
  69. ^ "UNEP Ogoniland Oil Assessment Reveals Extent of Environmental Contamination and Threats to Human Health". United Nations Environment Programme. 7 August 2017. Retrieved 6 July 2023.
  70. ^ Kusnetz, Nicholas; Surma, Katie; Talmazan, Yuliya (7 April 2021). "'Ecocide' movement pushes for a new international crime: Environmental destruction". NBC News. Retrieved 6 July 2023.
  71. ^ Saraki, Bukola (5 February 2014). "Fighting ecocide in Nigeria". theecologist.org. Retrieved 6 July 2023.
  72. ^ "UNPO: Ogoni: An Ecocide in the Making?". Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization. 2 November 2009. Retrieved 6 July 2023.
  73. ^ Holtum, Robert (22 August 2011). "How an ecocide law could prevent another Nigerian oil disaster". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 6 July 2023.
  74. ^ "Spotlighting oil majors' 'ecocide' of Niger Delta: Q&A with Michael J. Watts". Mongabay Environmental News. 2 June 2023. Retrieved 6 July 2023.
  75. ^ Londoño, Ernesto (25 April 2021). "Imagine Jair Bolsonaro Standing Trial for Ecocide at The Hague". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 25 April 2021. Retrieved 10 July 2023.
  76. ^ Watts, Jonathan (6 February 2023). "Investigate Bolsonaro for genocide, says Brazil's Marina Silva". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 10 July 2023.
  77. ^ O'Neill, Sadhbh (27 October 2022). "Bolsonaro should be investigated by International Criminal Court for crimes against humanity and nature". The Irish Times. Retrieved 10 July 2023.
  78. ^ McCartin, Matthew J. (2022–2023). "The Planet v. Bolsonaro: How an International Crime of Ecocide Could Aid in Enforcing the UNFCCC". Journal of Global Rights and Organizations. 13: 1.
  79. ^ Webb, Samuel (11 August 2021). "Brazil indigenous group accuses Bolsonaro of 'genocide' and 'ecocide'". The Independent. Retrieved 10 July 2023.
  80. ^ "Indigenous Groups Accuse Brazil's Bolsonaro of Genocide, Call on the ICC to Investigate | Sounds and Colours". soundsandcolours.com. 4 February 2022. Retrieved 10 July 2023.
  81. ^ Shelton, Jon (10 December 2021). "ICC climate crimes suit filed against Brazil's Bolsonaro". Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 10 July 2023.
  82. ^ Surma, Katie (24 June 2021). "Chiefs demand Bolsonaro's prosecution, say Amazon close to irreversible destruction". NBC News. Retrieved 10 July 2023.
  83. ^ a b c d "No Traces of Life, Israel's Ecocide in Gaza 2023 – 2024". Forensic Architecture. Archived from the original on 29 April 2024. Retrieved 7 April 2024.
  84. ^ a b c d Ahmed, Kaamil; Gayle, Damien; Mousa, Aseel (29 March 2024). "'Ecocide in Gaza': does scale of environmental destruction amount to a war crime?". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 29 May 2024. Retrieved 7 April 2024.
  85. ^ McKernan, Bethan (15 April 2024). "'It's death there': babies and children hit hardest as famine tightens hold on Gaza". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 29 May 2024. Retrieved 25 April 2024.
  86. ^ Saber, Indlieb Farazi (19 March 2024). "Is Israel's Gaza bombing also a war on the climate?". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 27 May 2024.
  87. ^ Graham-Harrison, Emma (26 April 2024). "Gaza's 37m tonnes of bomb-filled debris could take 14 years to clear, says expert". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 29 May 2024. Retrieved 30 April 2024.
  88. ^ Mahmoud, Hani. "Nothing left to sustain human life as Israeli forces turn North Gaza into 'wasteland'". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 13 June 2024.
  89. ^ Citizen Campaign to End Ecocide in Europe Archived 4 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine, Institute for Environmental Security, 22 January 2013
  90. ^ Sess.: 1986-1987), UN General Assembly (41st (20 January 1987). "Draft Code of Offences against the Peace and Security of Mankind :: resolution /: adopted by the General Assembly".{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  91. ^ "Lawyers Are Working to Put 'Ecocide' on Par with War Crimes. Could an International Law Hold Major Polluters to Account?". Time. 19 February 2021. Retrieved 5 July 2023.
  92. ^ "Ecocide is the missing 5th Crime Against Peace" (PDF). School of Advanced Study, University of London.
  93. ^ Convention on the prohibition of military or any other hostile use of environmental modification techniques Archived 31 May 2019 at the Wayback Machine, United nations Treaty Collection
  94. ^ Mølgaard Henriksen, Mette (27 February 2024). "'Revolutionary': EU Parliament votes to criminalise most serious cases of ecosystem destruction". Euronews. Retrieved 28 February 2024.
  95. ^ "Growing calls to recognize 'ecocide' as an international crime in light of Israel-Gaza conflict - EHN". grist.org. 26 February 2024. Retrieved 18 April 2024.
  96. ^ "The push to make 'ecocide' an international crime takes big step forward". nbcnews.com. NBC News. 23 June 2021.
  97. ^ a b Higgins, Short & South 2013.
  98. ^ Jowit, Juliette (9 April 2010). "British campaigner urges UN to accept 'ecocide' as international crime". The Guardian. Retrieved 11 October 2015.
  99. ^ "Is ecocide a crime? – handlebar-online.com". handlebar-online.com. Retrieved 2 July 2022.
  100. ^ The full proposal, which was submitted to the International Law Commission, is set out in chapters 5 and 6 of Higgins 2010
  101. ^ "The Law | Eradicating Ecocide". eradicatingecocide.com. Retrieved 8 November 2015.
  102. ^ "Initiative details – European Citizens' Initiative". European Commission. Retrieved 8 November 2015.
  103. ^ "IES > News > Citizen Campaign to End Ecocide in Europe". www.envirosecurity.org. 11 August 2015. Archived from the original on 4 April 2019. Retrieved 8 November 2015.
  104. ^ "Public hearing in the European Parliament | European Citizens' Initiative | The ECI Campaign". www.citizens-initiative.eu. Retrieved 8 November 2015.
  105. ^ "Statement by H. E. John H. Licht - Ambassador of the Republic of Vanuatu to the European Union" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 February 2020. Retrieved 15 February 2020.
  106. ^ "Written Statement of the Republic of Maldives" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 February 2020. Retrieved 15 February 2020.
  107. ^ Shalev, Ariella (7 February 2022). "Ecocide Law". FDSD. Retrieved 2 July 2022.
  108. ^ "Ecocide: Making environmental destruction a crime". www.irishevs.com. IrishEVs. 30 June 2021.
  109. ^ "Crime of ecocide could transform fight against climate change". Financial Times. 25 June 2021.
  110. ^ "Ecocide: How a fast-growing movement plans to put environmental destruction on a par with war crimes". Financial Times. 25 June 2021.
  111. ^ "LEGAL DEFINITION OF ECOCIDE". Stop Ecocide International. Retrieved 13 May 2023.
  112. ^ "Supporters of Ecocide Law". Stop Ecocide International. Retrieved 19 July 2023.
  113. ^ "Leading states". Stop Ecocide International. Retrieved 19 July 2023.
  114. ^ "Ecocide: a crime against the planet". Law Society of Scotland. Retrieved 22 June 2023.
  115. ^ Palme Stockholm Conference 1972, 5 August 2012, retrieved 19 July 2023
  116. ^ Siddique, Haroon; correspondent, Haroon Siddique Legal affairs (22 June 2021). "Legal experts worldwide draw up 'historic' definition of ecocide". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 22 June 2023. {{cite news}}: |last2= has generic name (help)
  117. ^ "Lawyers Are Working to Put 'Ecocide' on Par with War Crimes. Could an International Law Hold Major Polluters to Account?". Time. 19 February 2021. Retrieved 22 June 2023.
  118. ^ "Secretary-General's remarks on Global Compact for the environment". United Nations Secretary-General. 19 September 2017. Retrieved 25 September 2020.
  119. ^ "Supporters of Ecocide Law". Stop Ecocide International. Retrieved 21 June 2023.
  120. ^ EFEverde, Redacción (3 July 2021). "Guterres considera que "sería muy deseable" incorporar el Ecocidio como delito en la Corte Penal Internacional". EFEverde (in Spanish). Retrieved 21 June 2023.
  121. ^ "Pope Supports Classifying 'Ecocide' as an International Crime". National Review. 17 September 2020. Retrieved 16 June 2023.
  122. ^ "This movement wants to make harming the planet an international crime". The Guardian. 16 September 2020. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 16 June 2023.
  123. ^ "Pope Francis: Catechism will be updated to define ecological sins". America Magazine. 15 November 2019. Retrieved 16 June 2023.
  124. ^ "Supporters of Ecocide Law". Stop Ecocide International. Retrieved 2 June 2023.
  125. ^ "Ecocide as an international crime". UNA_UK. 26 October 2021. Retrieved 2 June 2023.
  126. ^ "Ecocide Law: The Use of Hard Law to Complement Soft Law". Retrieved 2 June 2023.
  127. ^ Yeo, Sophie. "Ecocide: Should killing nature be a crime?". bbc.com. Retrieved 16 June 2023.
  128. ^ "Supporters of Ecocide Law". Stop Ecocide International. Retrieved 16 June 2023.
  129. ^ "Türk: Human rights are antidote to prevailing politics of distraction, deception, indifference and repression". OHCHR. Retrieved 14 September 2023.
  130. ^ Vargas, Ramon Antonio (26 September 2022). "'A powerful solution': activists push to make ecocide an international crime". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 19 July 2023.
  131. ^ "SEF". Stop Ecocide International. Retrieved 8 August 2023.
  132. ^ Minkova, Liana Georgieva (2023). "The Fifth International Crime: Reflections on the Definition of "Ecocide"". Journal of Genocide Research. 25 (1): 62–83. doi:10.1080/14623528.2021.1964688.
  133. ^ Zierler, David (2011). The Invention of Ecocide. University of Georgia Press. ISBN 978-0820338279.
  134. ^ Article published in New York Times, 26 February 1970; quote in Weisberg, Barry Ecocide in Indochina (1970) Canfield Press, San Francisco OCLC 135562
  135. ^ a b Björk 1996, p. 15.
  136. ^ Björk 1996.
  137. ^ Gauger, Anja (2013). "The Ecocide Project: Ecocide is the missing 5th Crime Against Peace" (PDF). sas-space.sas.ac.uk. Retrieved 13 December 2018.
  138. ^ Falk, Richard A. (1973). "Environmental Warfare and Ecocide – Facts, Appraisal, and Proposals". In Thee, Marek (ed.). Bulletin of Peace Proposals. Vol. 1.
  139. ^ "Yearbook of the International Law Commission". legal.un.org. United Nations. 1978.
  140. ^ a b Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities. Study of the Question of the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. 4 July 1978. E/CN.4/Sub.2/416, p.124 and p.130
  141. ^ The Whitaker Report E/CN.4/Sub.2/1985/6.
  142. ^ "29-42 Whitaker Report on Genocide". preventgenocide.org. Prevent Genocide International. 1985.
  143. ^ "1987 Yearbook of the ILC Vol I" (PDF). legal.un.org. United Nations. 1987. p. 56, para 38. A/CN.4/SER.A/1987. Retrieved 11 October 2023.
  144. ^ Walsh, Bryan. "Is Ecocide a Crime?". Time. ISSN 0040-781X. Retrieved 8 November 2015.
  145. ^ "Ecocide Act | Eradicating Ecocide". eradicatingecocide.com. Archived from the original on 4 October 2015. Retrieved 8 November 2015.
  146. ^ Closing the door to dangerous industrial activity: A concept paper for governments to implement emergency measures Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine. The Earth Community Trust.
  147. ^ Johnson, Stanley (22 June 2012). "Palm trees and controversy: the world's top judges and lawyers at Rio+20". The Guardian. Retrieved 8 November 2015.
  148. ^ "Environmental Rule of Law". United Nations Environment Programme. Archived from the original on 31 August 2013. Retrieved 8 November 2015.
  149. ^ "Summary of the World Congress on Justice, Governance and Law for Environmental Sustainability, 17–20 June 2012, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil". www.iisd.ca. Archived from the original on 26 February 2017. Retrieved 8 November 2015.
  150. ^ United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (17 June 2012). "No lack of solutions at Rio+20". PreventionWeb. United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction. Retrieved 19 June 2024.
  151. ^ "International Conference on Environmental Crime: Current and Emerging Threats". www.unicri.it. Retrieved 8 November 2015.
  152. ^ "International Conference on Environmental Crime: Current and Emerging Threats: ACTION PLAN ON COMBATING ENVIRONMENTAL CRIME" (PDF). www.unicri.it. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2016. Retrieved 8 November 2015.
  153. ^ "Catechism will be updated to include ecological sins, pope says". CNS top stories. 15 November 2019. Archived from the original on 30 August 2021. Retrieved 15 February 2020.
  154. ^ Bowcott, OWen (30 November 2020). "International lawyers draft plan to criminalise ecosystem destruction". The Guardian. Retrieved 1 December 2020.
  155. ^ "Defining 'ecocide': how and why should environmental destruction be criminalised?". leighday.co.uk. Retrieved 23 June 2023.
  156. ^ Yakimova, Yasmina (20 May 2021). "Environmental liability rules need revamping" (Press release). European Parliament.
  157. ^ "Environmental liability rules need revamping". europarl.europa.eu. 20 May 2021. Retrieved 2 July 2022.
  158. ^ Resolution - Parliamentary strategies to strengthen peace and security against threats and conflicts resulting from climate-related disasters and their consequences (Report). IPU - 142nd Assembly. 27 May 2021.
  159. ^ "Six Island Nations Commit to 'Fossil Fuel-Free Pacific,' Demand Global Just Transition". Common Dreams. Retrieved 1 July 2023.
  160. ^ "Port Vila call to phase out fossil fuels". Radio New Zealand. 22 March 2023. Retrieved 1 July 2023.
  161. ^ Kurmayer, Nikolaus J. (17 November 2023). "EU strikes deal on new 'ecocide' rules to put polluters in jail". Euractiv. Retrieved 4 December 2023.
  162. ^ Higgins, Short & South 2013, p. 261.
  163. ^ "Existing Ecocide Laws". Ecocide Law. Retrieved 27 November 2023.
  164. ^ "France drafts 'ecocide' bill to punish acts of environmental damage". France 24. Agence France-Presse. 17 April 2021. Retrieved 2 July 2022.
  165. ^ Kaminski, Isabella (26 August 2023). "Growing number of countries consider making ecocide a crime". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 19 June 2024.
  166. ^ Valls Oyarzun, Eduardo; Gualberto Valverde, Rebeca; Malla García, Noelia; Colom Jiménez, María; Cordero Sánchez, Rebeca, eds. (2020). "17". Avenging nature: the role of nature in modern and contemporary art and literature. Ecocritical theory and practice. Lanham Boulder NewYork London: Lexington Books. ISBN 978-1-7936-2144-3.
  167. ^ a b c Narine 2018.
  168. ^ a b c Leaver, Tama (1997), Post-Humanism and Ecocide in William Gibson's Neuromancer and Ridley Scott's Blade Runner, archived from the original on 3 July 2013, retrieved 27 July 2011 – via The Cyberpunk Project[self-published source]
  169. ^ Narine 2018, Love in the Times of Ecocide, Environmental Trauma and Comic Relief in Andrew Stanton's WALL-E.

Works cited

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to Ecocide.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecocide&oldid=1258970138"